Vitamin E discussion forum position paper on the revision of the nomenclature of vitamin E.

This position paper opens a discussion forum of this Journal dedicated to a scientific debate on Vitamin E nomenclature. With this article we provide the scientific and medical communities with what we consider relevant information in favor of revising the nomenclature of vitamin E. To our knowledge, only RRR-α-tocopherol has been medically used to protect against a deficiency disease in humans, and therefore, it would be appropriate to restrict the term vitamin to this molecule. The direct demonstration of a vitamin function to other tocochromanols (including other tocopherols, tocotrienols and eventually tocomonoenols), has not yet been scientifically shown. In fact, the medical prescription of a molecule against the deficiency disease only because it has been included in the "Vitamin E family", but not tested as vitamin E, could lead to ineffective therapy and potentially dangerous consequences for patients. The idea of this revision launched during the recent 3rd Satellite Symposium on Vitamin E of the 2022 SFRR-Europe meeting, offers a open platform of discussion for the scientists involved in vitamin E research and scientific societies interested to this subject.

Adenovirus Reveals New Pathway for Cholesterol Egress from the Endolysosomal System.

In addition to providing invaluable insights to the host response to viral infection, adenovirus continues to be an important model system for discovering basic aspects of cell biology. This is especially true for products of early region three (E3), which have provided the foundation for understanding many new mechanisms regulating intracellular trafficking of host cell proteins involved in the host immune response. Cholesterol homeostasis is vital for proper cellular physiology, and disturbances in cholesterol balance are increasingly recognized as important factors in human disease. Despite its central role in numerous aspects of cellular functions, the mechanisms responsible for delivery of dietary cholesterol to the endoplasmic reticulum, where the lipid metabolic and regulatory machinery reside, remain poorly understood. In this review, we describe a novel intracellular pathway for cholesterol trafficking that has been co-opted by an adenovirus E3 gene product. We describe what is known about the molecular regulation of this pathway, how it might benefit viral replication, and its potential involvement in normal cell physiology. Finally, we make a case that adenovirus has co-opted a cellular pathway that may be dysregulated in various human diseases.

Identifying conserved molecular targets required for cell migration of glioblastoma cancer stem cells.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent primary malignant brain tumor and is associated with extensive tumor cell infiltration into the adjacent brain parenchyma. However, there are limited targeted therapies that address this disease hallmark. While the invasive capacity of self-renewing cancer stem cells (CSCs) and their non-CSC progeny has been investigated, the mode(s) of migration used by CSCs during invasion is currently unknown. Here we used time-lapse microscopy to evaluate the migratory behavior of CSCs, with a focus on identifying key regulators of migration. A head-to-head migration assay demonstrated that CSCs are more invasive than non-CSCs. Time-lapse live cell imaging further revealed that GBM patient-derived CSC models either migrate in a collective manner or in a single cell fashion. To uncover conserved molecular regulators responsible for collective cell invasion, we utilized the genetically tractable Drosophila border cell collective migration model. Candidates for functional studies were generated using results from a targeted Drosophila genetic screen followed by gene expression analysis of the human homologs in GBM tumors and associated GBM patient prognosis. This strategy identified the highly conserved small GTPase, Rap1a, as a potential regulator of cell invasion. Alteration of Rap1a activity impaired the forward progress of Drosophila border cells during development. Rap1a expression was elevated in GBM and associated with higher tumor grade. Functionally, the levels of activated Rap1a impacted CSC migration speed out of spheres onto extracellular matrix. The data presented here demonstrate that CSCs are more invasive than non-CSCs, are capable of both collective and single cell migration, and express conserved genes that are required for migration and invasion. Using this integrated approach, we identified a new role for Rap1a in the migration of GBM CSCs.

Vitamin E sequestration by liver fat in humans.

BACKGROUNDWe hypothesized that obesity-associated hepatosteatosis is a pathophysiological chemical depot for fat-soluble vitamins and altered normal physiology. Using α-tocopherol (vitamin E) as a model vitamin, pharmacokinetics and kinetics principles were used to determine whether excess liver fat sequestered α-tocopherol in women with obesity-associated hepatosteatosis versus healthy controls.METHODSCustom-synthesized deuterated α-tocopherols (d3- and d6-α-tocopherols) were administered to hospitalized healthy women and women with hepatosteatosis under investigational new drug guidelines. Fluorescently labeled α-tocopherol was custom-synthesized for cell studies.RESULTSIn healthy subjects, 85% of intravenous d6-α-tocopherol disappeared from the circulation within 20 minutes but reappeared within minutes and peaked at 3-4 hours; d3- and d6-α-tocopherols localized to lipoproteins. Lipoprotein redistribution occurred only in vivo within 1 hour, indicating a key role of the liver in uptake and re-release. Compared with healthy subjects who received 2 mg, subjects with hepatosteatosis had similar d6-α-tocopherol entry rates into liver but reduced initial release rates (P < 0.001). Similarly, pharmacokinetics parameters were reduced in hepatosteatosis subjects, indicating reduced hepatic d6-α-tocopherol output. Reductions in kinetics and pharmacokinetics parameters in hepatosteatosis subjects who received 2 mg were echoed by similar reductions in healthy subjects when comparing 5- and 2-mg doses. In vitro, fluorescent-labeled α-tocopherol localized to lipid in fat-loaded hepatocytes, indicating sequestration.CONCLUSIONSThe unique role of the liver in vitamin E physiology is dysregulated by excess liver fat. Obesity-associated hepatosteatosis may produce unrecognized hepatic vitamin E sequestration, which might subsequently drive liver disease. Our findings raise the possibility that hepatosteatosis may similarly alter hepatic physiology of other fat-soluble vitamins.TRIAL REGISTRATIONClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00862433.FUNDINGNational Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases and NIH grants DK053213-13, DK067494, and DK081761.

K-Ras G-domain binding with signaling lipid phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-phosphate (PIP2): membrane association, protein orientation, and function.

Ras genes potently drive human cancers, with mutated proto-oncogene GTPase KRAS4B (K-Ras4B) being the most abundant isoform. Targeted inhibition of oncogenic gene products is considered the "holy grail" of present-day cancer therapy, and recent discoveries of small-molecule KRas4B inhibitors were made thanks to a deeper understanding of the structure and dynamics of this GTPase. Because interactions with biological membranes are key for Ras function, Ras-lipid interactions have become a major focus, especially because such interactions evidently involve both the Ras C terminus for lipid anchoring and its G-protein domain. Here, using NMR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations complemented by biophysical- and cell-biology assays, we investigated the interaction between K-Ras4B with the signaling lipid phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-phosphate (PIP2). We discovered that the ß2 and ß3 strands as well as helices 4 and 5 of the GTPase G-domain bind to PIP2 and identified the specific residues in these structural elements employed in these interactions, likely occurring in two K-Ras4B orientation states relative to the membrane. Importantly, we found that some of these residues known to be oncogenic when mutated (D47K, D92N, K104M, and D126N) are critical for K-Ras-mediated transformation of fibroblast cells, but do not substantially affect basal and assisted nucleotide hydrolysis and exchange. Moreover, the K104M substitution abolished localization of K-Ras to the plasma membrane. The findings suggest that specific G-domain residues can critically regulate Ras function by mediating interactions with membrane-associated PIP2 lipids; these insights that may inform the future design of therapeutic reagents targeting Ras activity.

Adenovirus Modulates Toll-Like Receptor 4 Signaling by Reprogramming ORP1L-VAP Protein Contacts for Cholesterol Transport from Endosomes to the Endoplasmic Reticulum.

Human adenoviruses (Ads) generally cause mild self-limiting infections but can lead to serious disease and even be fatal in high-risk individuals, underscoring the importance of understanding how the virus counteracts host defense mechanisms. This study had two goals. First, we wished to determine the molecular basis of cholesterol homeostatic responses induced by the early region 3 membrane protein RIDα via its direct interaction with the sterol-binding protein ORP1L, a member of the evolutionarily conserved family of oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP)-related proteins (ORPs). Second, we wished to determine how this interaction regulates innate immunity to adenovirus. ORP1L is known to form highly dynamic contacts with endoplasmic reticulum-resident VAP proteins that regulate late endosome function under regulation of Rab7-GTP. Our studies have demonstrated that ORP1L-VAP complexes also support transport of LDL-derived cholesterol from endosomes to the endoplasmic reticulum, where it was converted to cholesteryl esters stored in lipid droplets when ORP1L was bound to RIDα. The virally induced mechanism counteracted defects in the predominant cholesterol transport pathway regulated by the late endosomal membrane protein Niemann-Pick disease type C protein 1 (NPC1) arising during early stages of viral infection. However, unlike NPC1, RIDα did not reconstitute transport to endoplasmic reticulum pools that regulate SREBP transcription factors. RIDα-induced lipid trafficking also attenuated proinflammatory signaling by Toll-like receptor 4, which has a central role in Ad pathogenesis and is known to be tightly regulated by cholesterol-rich "lipid rafts." Collectively, these data show that RIDα utilizes ORP1L in a way that is distinct from its normal function in uninfected cells to fine-tune lipid raft cholesterol that regulates innate immunity to adenovirus in endosomes.IMPORTANCE Early region 3 proteins encoded by human adenoviruses that attenuate immune-mediated pathology have been a particularly rich source of information regarding intracellular protein trafficking. Our studies with the early region 3-encoded RIDα protein also provided fundamental new information regarding mechanisms of nonvesicular lipid transport and the flow of molecular information at membrane contacts between different organelles. We describe a new pathway that delivers cholesterol from endosomes to the endoplasmic reticulum, where it is esterified and stored in lipid droplets. Although lipid droplets are attracting renewed interest from the standpoint of normal physiology and human diseases, including those resulting from viral infections, experimental model systems for evaluating how and why they accumulate are still limited. Our studies also revealed an intriguing relationship between lipid droplets and innate immunity that may represent a new paradigm for viruses utilizing these organelles.

Vitamin E and Phosphoinositides Regulate the Intracellular Localization of the Hepatic α-Tocopherol Transfer Protein.

α-Tocopherol (vitamin E) is an essential nutrient for all vertebrates. From the eight naturally occurring members of the vitamin E family, α-tocopherol is the most biologically active species and is selectively retained in tissues. The hepatic α-tocopherol transfer protein (TTP) preferentially selects dietary α-tocopherol and facilitates its transport through the hepatocyte and its secretion to the circulation. In doing so, TTP regulates body-wide levels of α-tocopherol. The mechanisms by which TTP facilitates α-tocopherol trafficking in hepatocytes are poorly understood. We found that the intracellular localization of TTP in hepatocytes is dynamic and responds to the presence of α-tocopherol. In the absence of the vitamin, TTP is localized to perinuclear vesicles that harbor CD71, transferrin, and Rab8, markers of the recycling endosomes. Upon treatment with α-tocopherol, TTP- and α-tocopherol-containing vesicles translocate to the plasma membrane, prior to secretion of the vitamin to the exterior of the cells. The change in TTP localization is specific to α-tocopherol and is time- and dose-dependent. The aberrant intracellular localization patterns of lipid binding-defective TTP mutants highlight the importance of protein-lipid interaction in the transport of α-tocopherol. These findings provide the basis for a proposed mechanistic model that describes TTP-facilitated trafficking of α-tocopherol through hepatocytes.

Synthesis and characterization of a fluorescent probe for α-tocopherol suitable for fluorescence microscopy.

Previously prepared fluorescent derivatives of α-tocopherol have shown tremendous utility in both in vitro exploration of the mechanism of ligand transfer by the α-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP) and the intracellular transport of α-tocopherol in cells and tissues. We report here the synthesis of a 4,4-difluoro-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene (BODIPY) containing α-tocopherol analog having extended conjugation with an alkenyl thiophene group that extends the absorption and emission maxima to longer wavelengths (λex=571nm and λem=583nm). The final fluorophore thienyl-ene-BODIPY-α-tocopherol, 2, binds to recombinant human α-TTP with a Kd=8.7±1.1nM and is a suitable probe for monitoring the secretion of α-tocopherol from cultured Mcf7#189 cells.

Vitamin E and neurodegeneration.

Alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) is a plant-derived antioxidant that is essential for human health. Studies with humans and with animal models of vitamin E deficiency established the critical roles of the vitamin in protecting the central nervous system, and especially the cerebellum, from oxidative damage and motor coordination deficits. We review here the established roles of vitamin E in protecting cerebellar functions, as well as emerging data demonstrating the critical roles of alpha-tocopherol in preserving learning, memory and emotive responses. We also discuss the importance of vitamin E adequacy in seemingly unrelated neurological disorders.

Tyrosine phosphorylation of Dbl regulates GTPase signaling.

Rho GTPases are molecular "switches" that cycle between "on" (GTP-bound) and "off" (GDP-bound) states and regulate numerous cellular activities such as gene expression, protein synthesis, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and metabolic responses. Dysregulation of GTPases is a key feature of many diseases, especially cancers. Guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) of the Dbl family are activated by mitogenic cell surface receptors and activate the Rho family GTPases Cdc42, Rac1, and RhoA. The molecular mechanisms that regulate GEFs from the Dbl family are poorly understood. Our studies reveal that Dbl is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues upon stimulation by growth factors and that this event is critical for the regulated activation of the GEF. These findings uncover a novel layer of complexity in the physiological regulation of this protein.

Vitamin E trafficking in neurologic health and disease.

Vitamin E was identified almost a century ago as a botanical compound necessary for rodent reproduction. Decades of research since then established that of all members of the vitamin E family, α-tocopherol is selectively enriched in human tissues, and it is essential for human health. The major function of α-tocopherol is thought to be that of a lipid-soluble antioxidant that prevents oxidative damage to biological components. As such, α-tocopherol is necessary for numerous physiological processes such as permeability of lipid bilayers, cell adhesion, and gene expression. Inadequate levels of α-tocopherol interfere with cellular function and precipitate diseases, notably ones that affect the central nervous system. The extreme hydrophobicity of α-tocopherol poses a serious thermodynamic barrier for proper distribution of the vitamin to target tissues and cells. Although transport of the vitamin shares some steps with that of other lipids, selected tissues evolved dedicated transport mechanisms involving the α-tocopherol transfer protein (αTTP). The critical roles of this protein and its ligand are underscored by the debilitating pathologies that characterize human carriers of mutations in the TTPA gene.

Plekhg4 is a novel Dbl family guanine nucleotide exchange factor protein for rho family GTPases.

Mutations in the PLEKHG4 (puratrophin-1) gene are associated with the heritable neurological disorder autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxia. However, the biochemical functions of this gene product have not been described. We report here that expression of Plekhg4 in the murine brain is developmentally regulated, with pronounced expression in the newborn midbrain and brainstem that wanes with age and maximal expression in the cerebellar Purkinje neurons in adulthood. We show that Plekhg4 is subject to ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation, and its steady-state expression levels are regulated by the chaperones Hsc70 and Hsp90 and by the ubiquitin ligase CHIP. On the functional level, we demonstrate that Plekhg4 functions as a bona fide guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that facilitates activation of the small GTPases Rac1, Cdc42, and RhoA. Overexpression of Plekhg4 in NIH3T3 cells induces rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton, specifically enhanced formation of lamellopodia and fillopodia. These findings indicate that Plekhg4 is an aggregation-prone member of the Dbl family GEFs and that regulation of GTPase signaling is critical for proper cerebellar function.

Expression of the α-tocopherol transfer protein gene is regulated by oxidative stress and common single-nucleotide polymorphisms.

Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) is the major lipid-soluble antioxidant in most animal species. By controlling the secretion of vitamin E from the liver, the α-tocopherol transfer protein regulates whole-body distribution and levels of this vital nutrient. However, the mechanism(s) that regulates the expression of this protein is poorly understood. Here we report that transcription of the TTPA gene in immortalized human hepatocytes is induced by oxidative stress and by hypoxia, by agonists of the nuclear receptors PPARα and RXR, and by increased cAMP levels. The data show further that induction of TTPA transcription by oxidative stress is mediated by an already-present transcription factor and does not require de novo protein synthesis. Silencing of the cAMP response element-binding (CREB) transcription factor attenuated transcriptional responses of the TTPA gene to added peroxide, suggesting that CREB mediates responses of this gene to oxidative stress. Using a 1.9-kb proximal segment of the human TTPA promoter together with a site-directed mutagenesis approach, we found that single-nucleotide polymorphisms that are commonly found in healthy humans dramatically affect promoter activity. These observations suggest that oxidative stress and individual genetic makeup contribute to vitamin E homeostasis in humans. These findings may explain the variable responses to vitamin E supplementation observed in human clinical trials.

The α-tocopherol transfer protein is essential for vertebrate embryogenesis.

The hepatic α-tocopherol transfer protein (TTP) is required for optimal α-tocopherol bioavailability in humans; mutations in the human TTPA gene result in the heritable disorder ataxia with vitamin E deficiency (AVED, OMIM #277460). TTP is also expressed in mammalian uterine and placental cells and in the human embryonic yolk-sac, underscoring TTP's significance during fetal development. TTP and vitamin E are essential for productive pregnancy in rodents, but their precise physiological role in embryogenesis is unknown. We hypothesize that TTP is required to regulate delivery of α-tocopherol to critical target sites in the developing embryo. We tested to find if TTP is essential for proper vertebrate development, utilizing the zebrafish as a non-placental model. We verify that TTP is expressed in the adult zebrafish and its amino acid sequence is homologous to the human ortholog. We show that embryonic transcription of TTP mRNA increases >7-fold during the first 24 hours following fertilization. In situ hybridization demonstrates that Ttpa transcripts are localized in the developing brain, eyes and tail bud at 1-day post fertilization. Inhibiting TTP expression using oligonucleotide morpholinos results in severe malformations of the head and eyes in nearly all morpholino-injected embryos (88% compared with 5.6% in those injected with control morpholinos or 1.7% in non-injected embryos). We conclude that TTP is essential for early development of the vertebrate central nervous system.

Disruption of mouse cytochrome p450 4f14 (Cyp4f14 gene) causes severe perturbations in vitamin E metabolism.

Vitamin E is a family of naturally occurring and structurally related lipophilic antioxidants, one of which, α-tocopherol (α-TOH), selectively accumulates in vertebrate tissues. The ω-hydroxylase cytochrome P450-4F2 (CYP4F2) is the only human enzyme shown to metabolize vitamin E. Using cDNA cloning, cell culture expression, and activity assays, we identified Cyp4f14 as a functional murine ortholog of CYP4F2. We then investigated the effect of Cyp4f14 deletion on vitamin E metabolism and status in vivo. Cyp4f14-null mice exhibited substrate-specific reductions in liver microsomal vitamin E-ω-hydroxylase activity ranging from 93% (γ-TOH) to 48% (γ-tocotrienol). In vivo data obtained from metabolic cage studies showed whole-body reductions in metabolism of γ-TOH of 90% and of 68% for δ- and α-TOH. This metabolic deficit in Cyp4f14(-/-) mice was partially offset by increased fecal excretion of nonmetabolized tocopherols and of novel ω-1- and ω-2-hydroxytocopherols. 12'-OH-γ-TOH represented 41% of whole-body production of γ-TOH metabolites in Cyp4f14(-/-) mice fed a soybean oil diet. Despite these counterbalancing mechanisms, Cyp4f14-null mice fed this diet for 6 weeks hyper-accumulated γ-TOH (2-fold increase over wild-type littermates) in all tissues and appeared normal. We conclude that CYP4F14 is the major but not the only vitamin E-ω-hydroxylase in mice. Its disruption significantly impairs whole-body vitamin E metabolism and alters the widely conserved phenotype of preferential tissue deposition of α-TOH. This model animal and its derivatives will be valuable in determining the biological actions of specific tocopherols and tocotrienols in vivo.

The contribution of surface residues to membrane binding and ligand transfer by the α-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP).

Previous work has shown that the α-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP) can bind to vesicular or immobilized phospholipid membranes. Revealing the molecular mechanisms by which α-TTP associates with membranes is thought to be critical to understanding its function and role in the secretion of tocopherol from hepatocytes into the circulation. Calculations presented in the Orientations of Proteins in Membranes database have provided a testable model for the spatial arrangement of α-TTP and other CRAL-TRIO family proteins with respect to the lipid bilayer. These calculations predicted that a hydrophobic surface mediates the interaction of α-TTP with lipid membranes. To test the validity of these predictions, we used site-directed mutagenesis and examined the substituted mutants with regard to intermembrane ligand transfer, association with lipid layers and biological activity in cultured hepatocytes. Substitution of residues in helices A8 (F165A and F169A) and A10 (I202A, V206A and M209A) decreased the rate of intermembrane ligand transfer as well as protein adsorption to phospholipid bilayers. The largest impairment was observed upon mutation of residues that are predicted to be fully immersed in the lipid bilayer in both apo (open) and holo (closed) conformations such as Phe165 and Phe169. Mutation F169A, and especially F169D, significantly impaired α-TTP-assisted secretion of α-tocopherol outside cultured hepatocytes. Mutation of selected basic residues (R192H, K211A, and K217A) had little effect on transfer rates, indicating no significant involvement of nonspecific electrostatic interactions with membranes.

Hepatic α-tocopherol transfer protein: ligand-induced protection from proteasomal degradation.

There are eight naturally occurring forms of the dietary antioxidant vitamin E. Of these, only α-tocopherol is retained at high levels in vertebrate plasma and tissues. This selectivity is achieved in part by the action of the hepatic α-tocopherol transfer protein (TTP), which facilitates the selective incorporation of dietary α-tocopherol into circulating lipoproteins. We examined the effects of vitamin E on TTP expression in cultured hepatocytes. Treatment with vitamin E precipitated a time- and dose-dependent increase in the steady-state levels of TTP. This stabilization was caused by α-tocopherol-induced attenuation of the ubiquitination of TTP and its subsequent degradation by the proteasome. In vitro, vitamin E protected TTP from proteolytic degradation by trypsin, suggesting ligand-induced changes in protein conformation. Cell fractionation studies showed that TTP is distributed between the cytosolic and membranous organelle fraction, and that tocopherol induced the translocation of some TTP from the cytosol to the organelle fraction. Furthermore, vitamin E markedly attenuated the degradation of organelle-bound TTP. These findings suggest that vitamin E imparts a distinct conformation on TTP that is associated with localization to a specific cellular compartment, where the protein is less susceptible to proteasomal degradation.

Tocopherol transfer protein sensitizes prostate cancer cells to vitamin E.

Prostate cancer is a major cause of mortality in men in developed countries. It has been reported that the naturally occurring antioxidant α-tocopherol (vitamin E) attenuates prostate cancer cell proliferation in cultured cells and mouse models. We hypothesized that overexpression of the tocopherol transfer protein (TTP), a vitamin E-binding protein that regulates tocopherol status, will sensitize prostate cancer cells to the anti-proliferative actions of the vitamin. To test this notion, we manipulated the expression levels of TTP in cultured prostate cells (LNCaP, PC3, DU145, and RWPE-1) using overexpression and knockdown approaches. Treatment of cells with tocopherol caused a time- and dose-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation. Overexpression of TTP dramatically sensitized the cells to the apoptotic effects of α-tocopherol, whereas reduction ("knockdown") of TTP expression resulted in resistance to the vitamin. TTP levels also augmented the inhibitory effects of vitamin E on proliferation in semi-solid medium. The sensitizing effects of TTP were paralleled by changes in the intracellular accumulation of a fluorescent analog of vitamin E and by a reduction in intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species and were not observed when a naturally occurring, ligand binding-defective mutant of TTP was used. We conclude that TTP sensitizes prostate cancer cells to the anti-proliferative effects of vitamin E and that this activity stems from the ability of protein to increase the intracellular accumulation of the antioxidant. These observations support the notion that individual changes in the expression level or activity of TTP may determine the responsiveness of prostate cancer patients to intervention strategies that utilize vitamin E.