The Improvement of Durability of Reinforced Concretes for Sustainable Structures: A Review on Different Approaches.

The topic of sustainability of reinforced concrete structures is strictly related with their durability in aggressive environments. In particular, at equal environmental impact, the higher the durability of construction materials, the higher the sustainability. The present review deals with the possible strategies aimed at producing sustainable and durable reinforced concrete structures in different environments. It focuses on the design methodologies as well as the use of unconventional corrosion-resistant reinforcements, alternative binders to Portland cement, and innovative or traditional solutions for reinforced concrete protection and prevention against rebars corrosion such as corrosion inhibitors, coatings, self-healing techniques, and waterproofing aggregates. Analysis of the scientific literature highlights that there is no preferential way for the production of "green" concrete but that the sustainability of the building materials can only be achieved by implementing simultaneous multiple strategies aimed at reducing environmental impact and improving both durability and performances.

Binders alternative to Portland cement and waste management for sustainable construction-part 1.

This review presents "a state of the art" report on sustainability in construction materials. The authors propose different solutions to make the concrete industry more environmentally friendly in order to reduce greenhouse gases emissions and consumption of non-renewable resources. Part 1-the present paper-focuses on the use of binders alternative to Portland cement, including sulfoaluminate cements, alkali-activated materials, and geopolymers. Part 2 will be dedicated to traditional Portland-free binders and waste management and recycling in mortar and concrete production.

Binders alternative to Portland cement and waste management for sustainable construction - Part 2.

The paper represents the "state of the art" on sustainability in construction materials. In Part 1 of the paper, issues related to production, microstructures, chemical nature, engineering properties, and durability of mixtures based on binders alternative to Portland cement were presented. This second part of the paper concerns the use of traditional and innovative Portland-free lime-based mortars in the conservation of cultural heritage, and the recycling and management of wastes to reduce consumption of natural resources in the production of construction materials. The latter is one of the main concerns in terms of sustainability since nowadays more than 75% of wastes are disposed of in landfills.

Calcium looping spent sorbent as a limestone replacement in the manufacture of portland and calcium sulfoaluminate cements.

The calcium looping (CaL) spent sorbent (i) can be a suitable limestone replacement in the production of both ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement, and (ii) promotes environmental benefits in terms of reduced CO2 emission, increased energy saving and larger utilization of industrial byproducts. A sample of CaL spent sorbent, purged from a 200 kWth pilot facility, was tested as a raw material for the synthesis of two series of OPC and CSA clinkers, obtained from mixes heated in a laboratory electric oven within temperature ranges 1350°-1500 °C and 1200°-1350 °C, respectively. As OPC clinker-generating mixtures, six clay-containing binary blends were investigated, three with limestone (reference mixes) and three with the CaL spent sorbent. All of them showed similar burnability indexes. Moreover, three CSA clinker-generating blends (termed RM, MA and MB) were explored. They included, in the order: (I) limestone, bauxite and gypsum (reference mix); (II) CaL spent sorbent, bauxite and gypsum; (III) CaL spent sorbent plus anodization mud and a mixture of fluidized bed combustion (FBC) fly and bottom ashes. The maximum conversion toward 4CaO·3Al2O3·SO3, the chief CSA clinker component, was the largest for MB and almost the same for RM and MA.

Flue gas desulfurization gypsum and coal fly ash as basic components of prefabricated building materials.

The manufacture of prefabricated building materials containing binding products such as ettringite (6CaO·Al2O3·3SO3·32H2O) and calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) can give, in addition to other well-defined industrial activities, the opportunity of using wastes and by-products as raw materials, thus contributing to further saving of natural resources and protection of the environment. Two ternary mixtures, composed by 40% flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum or natural gypsum (as a reference material), 35% calcium hydroxide and 25% coal fly ash, were submitted to laboratory hydrothermal treatments carried out within time and temperature ranges of 2h-7days and 55-85°C, respectively. The formation of (i) ettringite, by hydration of calcium sulfate given by FGD or natural gypsum, alumina of fly ash and part of calcium hydroxide, and (ii) CSH, by hydration of silica contained in fly ash and residual lime, was observed within both the reacting systems. For the FGD gypsum-based mixture, the conversion toward ettringite and CSH was highest at 70°C and increased with curing time. Some discrepancies in the hydration behavior between the mixtures were ascribed to differences in mineralogical composition between natural and FGD gypsum.

Use of industrial byproducts as alumina sources for the synthesis of calcium sulfoaluminate cements.

Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements show some desirable environmentally friendly features that include the possibility of using several industrial byproducts as raw materials in their manufacturing process. Alumina powder, from the secondary aluminum manufacture, and anodization mud, from the production process of anodized aluminum, have proved to be suitable as partial or total substitutes for an expensive natural material like bauxite. CSA clinker generating raw mixtures, containing limestone, natural gypsum, bauxite, and/or one of the alumina-rich byproducts, were heated 2 h in a laboratory electric oven at temperatures ranging from 1150 to 1300 °C. Conversion of reactants into 4CaO·3Al(2)O(3)·SO(3) (the key component of CSA cements), evaluated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, increased with an increase of both burning temperature and byproduct concentration. When examined through differential thermogravimetric and XRD analyses, a synthetic CSA clinker (made from the raw mixture incorporating alumina powder as a total replacement of bauxite) mixed with 20% gypsum showed a hydration behavior almost similar to that of an industrial CSA cement containing the same amount of gypsum.