Different lung responses to cigarette smoke in two strains of mice sensitive to oxidants.

The development of cigarette smoke-induced pulmonary changes in C57 Bl/6J and DBA/2 mice was investigated. Both strains are sensitive to oxidants and C57Bl/6J mice are moderately deficient in serum alpha1-proteinase inhibitor. Following chronic exposure to cigarette smoke, patchy emphysema was present in mice of both strains, but developed faster in DBA/2 mice. A positive reaction for mouse neutrophil elastase was seen on the septa of both strains. Additionally, the DBA/2 mice developed a uniform parenchymal dilation that was preceded by the appearance of apoptotic cells in areas with a low signal for vascular endothelial growth factor-receptor 2. Fibrotic areas scattered throughout the parenchyma, coupled with a positive immunohistochemical reaction for transforming growth factor-beta was seen only in DBA/2 mice. Both DBA/2 and C57Bl/6J strains showed epithelial cell injury and areas of deciliation in their airways. However, the appearance of goblet cell metaplasia was common in C57Bl/6J mice but rare in DBA/2 mice. A positive immunohistochemical reaction for interleukin (IL)-4, IL-13 and MUC5AC was seen only in the airways of C57Bl/6J mice. Strain characteristics (alpha1-proteinase inhibitor levels, sensitivity to oxidants, and constitutive levels of vascular endothelial growth factor-receptor 2) and phenotypical responses (apoptosis and cytokine distribution) may condition parenchymal and airway changes to cigarette smoke.

Collagen phagocytosis by lung alveolar macrophages in animal models of emphysema.

Under steady state conditions the intracellular pathway is the major route of collagen catabolism in tissues characterised by rapid collagen turnover. In the lung, the collagen is subject to continuous remodelling and turnover however, the intracellular pathway of collagen degradation is unusual under physiological conditions. The current authors previously described crystalloid inclusions in alveolar macrophages of mice with genetic emphysema at the time of septal disruption. Using an immunogold technique these inclusions were identified as collagen-derived products and related to intracytoplasmic collagen degradation. To examine whether a different degree of protease burden in lung interstitium may influence the route of intracellular collagen degradation, collagen phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages was studied in various mouse models of emphysema at the time when emphysema develops. Evident collagen by-products in alveolar macrophages were observed in destructive processes characterising spontaneous models of emphysema either with negligible (blotchy mouse) or moderate (pallid mouse) elastase burden. On the other hand, intracellular collagen by-products were appreciated only in a few macrophages from tight-skin mice with high elastolytic burden and could not be observed in mice with a very severe burden after elastase instillation. In conclusion, the interstitial level of proteases burden can affect the way by which the collagen is cleared (intracellularly versus extracellularly).

Effects of cigarette smoke in mice with different levels of alpha(1)-proteinase inhibitor and sensitivity to oxidants.

The role of strain difference in the response to cigarette smoke was investigated in mice. Mice of the strains DBA/2 and C57BL/6J responded to acute cigarette smoke with a decrease of the antioxidant defenses of their bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids. On the other hand, under these conditions ICR mice increased their BAL antioxidant defenses. Mice of these three strains were then exposed to cigarette smoke (three cigarettes/d, 5 d/wk) for 7 mo. Lung elastin content was significantly decreased in C57BL/6J and DBA/2 but not in ICR mice. Also, emphysema, assessed morphometrically using three methods, was present in C57BL/6J and DBA/2 but not in ICR mice. In an additional study pallid mice, with a severe serum alpha(1)-proteinase inhibitor (alpha(1)-PI) deficiency and that develop spontaneous emphysema, were exposed to cigarette smoke for 4 mo. This resulted in an acceleration of the development of the spontaneous emphysema assessed with morphometrical and biochemical (lung elastin content) methods. All these results indicate that sensitivity to the effects of cigarette smoke is strain-dependent and cigarette smoke accelerates the effects of alpha(1)-PI deficiency.

Human SLPI inactivation after cigarette smoke exposure in a new in vivo model of pulmonary oxidative stress.

The role of oxidative stress in inactivating antiproteases is the object of debate. To address this question, we developed an in vivo model of pulmonary oxidative stress induced by cigarette smoke (CS) in mice. The major mouse trypsin inhibitor contrapsin is not sensitive to oxidation, and the mouse secretory leukoprotease inhibitor (SLPI) does not inhibit trypsin. Instead, human recombinant (hr) SLPI inhibits trypsin and is sensitive to oxidation. Thus we determined the effect of CS in vivo on hrSLPI antiproteolytic function in the airways of mice. CS caused a significant decrease in total antioxidant capacity in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and significant changes in oxidized glutathione, ascorbic acid, protein thiols, and 8-epi-PGF(2alpha). Intratracheal hrSLPI significantly increased BALF antitryptic activity. CS induced a 50% drop in the inhibitory activity of hrSLPI. Pretreatment with N-acetylcysteine prevented the CS-induced loss of hrSLPI activity, the decrease in antioxidant defenses, and the elevation of 8-epi-PGF-(2alpha). Thus an inactivation of hrSLPI was demonstrated in this model. This is a novel model for studying in vivo the effects of CS oxidative stress on human protease inhibitors with antitrypsin activity.

Genetic deficiency of alpha1-PI in mice influences lung responses to bleomycin.

It has recently been suggested that proteinase inhibitors modulate the fibrotic response in the lung. This study investigated the development of bleomycin-induced pulmonary changes in pallid mice, deficient in serum alpha1-proteinase inhibitor, and with a lower elastase inhibitory capacity, and in congenic C57Bl/6J mice. Male pallid and C57Bl/6J mice received a single intratracheal instillation of either saline or bleomycin. The investigation was carried out by means of biochemical, morphological and morphometrical methods. In both strains, 21 and 72 h after bleomycin, the lungs showed foci of inflammatory cell infiltration associated with emphysema. Fibrosis developed with time after bleomycin. At 14 days fibrosis affected 23.46+/-9.48% (mean +/- SD) and 40.62+/-13.34% (p < 0.01) of the lungs of C57Bl/6J and pallid mice, respectively. Emphysema affected 3.68+/-3.11% and 12.57+/-4.13% (p<0.01) of lung in C57Bl/6J and pallid mice, respectively. In C57Bl/6J mice bleomycin increased lung hydroxyproline content by 34% and desmosine content by 44% (p < 0.01 for both). In pallid mice these increases were only 21% (p < 0.01) and 6% which may reflect parenchymal loss. Thus, the lung destructive response (emphysema) and the subsequent proliferative reaction (fibrosis) to bleomycin are potentiated in alpha1-proteinase inhibitor deficiency.

In vitro and in vivo vasodilating activity of nitroso derivatives gem -substituted with electron-withdrawing groups.

A series of nitroso compounds gem -substituted with electron-withdrawing groups (R(2)C(X)NO, R=alkyl, X=NO(2), CN, Cl), were studied for their in vitro and in vivo vasodilating properties as well as for their ability to activate soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) in RFL-6 cells. All the compounds, with the sole exception of chloro derivative, display good in vitro vasodilating action and are able to increase the basal level of cGMP. Their potencies as vasodilators decrease in the presence of oxyhaemoglobin, a scavenger of nitric oxide (NO). The haemodynamic profile of the most interesting compounds, assessed in anaesthetized pigs, is also in line with a release of NO from these compounds.

Ramiprilat prevents the development of acute coronary endothelial dysfunction in the dog.

We investigated the effect of an infusion of ramiprilat on the development of coronary endothelial dysfunction. In anesthetized dogs, the endothelium-dependent vasodilators acetylcholine (ACh, 5 and 10 microg x min(-1) for 1 min) and serotonin (5-HT, 50 and 100 microg x min(-1) for 1 min) and the endothelium-independent vasodilator nitroglycerin (NTG, 50 and 100 microg x min(-1) for 1 min) were given intracoronarily (i.c.) both prior to and after 60 min of ischemia (I) and 180 min of reperfusion (R) of a coronary artery. During I/R the dogs received i.c. either saline (N = 22) or ramiprilat (40 ng/kg x min(-1), N = 14). At the end of the experiment, a biopsy of the most distal coronary bed was processed for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Prior to I/R all vasodilators induced a similar dose-related increase in coronary flow in both groups. Following I/R, in controls the responses to ACh and 5-HT were significantly blunted (ACh: -39% and -34%; 5-HT: -48% and -49%); those to NTG were unchanged. Ramiprilat significantly prevented the blunting of the responses to ACh (-5%, and -10%) and 5-HT (-11%, and -19%). SEM of control subepicardial arterioles showed adhesion of leukocytes to the endothelium and crater formation. No craters were seen in the ramiprilat-treated dogs. Thus, an acute infusion of ramiprilat significantly prevents the development of coronary endothelial dysfunction. Additionally, the appearance of crater-like changes on the endothelial surface can be taken as a morphological marker of endothelial dysfunction.

Ultrastructure of lung elastin and collagen in mouse models of spontaneous emphysema.

The tight-skin (Tsk) and beige (bg) mutants of the C57B1/6J strain of mouse spontaneously develop air-space enlargement reminiscent of human emphysema. To determine if this enlargement is accompanied by matrix destruction, as in the human disease, we examined the elastin and collagen matrices of the lungs of both mutants. The ultrastructure of these matrix components was separately visualized by scanning electron microscopy following controlled alkali digestion, which preserves collagen, and formic acid digestion, which enables visualization of elastin. Significant elastin destruction suggestive of an elastolytic process was observed in the lungs of Tsk mice. Thickening of elastin lamellae was observed in the lungs of bg mice, suggesting that congenital matrix remodeling may underlie air-space enlargement in this strain.

Neutrophil influx into the lungs of beige mice is followed by elastolytic damage and emphysema.

The beige mouse is currently used as a model of elastase and cathepsin G deficiency to demonstrate or exclude the role of these proteases in a variety of pathologic conditions. We recently demonstrated that beige cathepsin G is tightly bound to neutrophil lysosomal membranes but is released in near normal quantities during exocytosis. Also, beige neutrophils contain a latent form of elastase that undergoes spontaneous activation when released under in vitro or in vivo conditions. However, the pathogenic potential of this enzyme in matrix degradation has not been ascertained previously. The possibility that in beige mice elastolytic proteases from neutrophils recruited into the lung have the capability to damage alveolar septa was investigated following an intratracheal instillation of N-formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine (200 microg). Neutrophil influx was followed by a decrease in lung elastin content (-18%) and by a significant increase of the mean linear intercept (+30%) and of morphologic emphysema. The onset of pulmonary lesion was preceded by a marked increase of neutrophil elastase burden on the alveolar interstitium. The appearance of emphysema was prevented by administration of the serine protease inhibitor 4-(2-aminoetyl)-benzenesulfonyl fluoride hydrochloride (2. 4 microg/ml saline). These results demonstrate that the lung elastin degradation and emphysema can occur in beige lungs. The fact that the beige mouse does develop lung elastolytic changes after neutrophil recruitment indicates that this mutant cannot be considered a model of neutrophil function deficiency and used as a model of elastase deficiency.

Reduction of myocardial reperfusion injury by an inhibitor of poly (ADP-ribose) synthetase in the pig.

The effect of the Poly (adenosine 5'-diphosphate ribose) synthetase (PARS) inhibitor 3-aminobenzamide on (i) infarct size caused by regional myocardial ischaemia (60 min) and reperfusion (3 h) in the anaesthetised pig, and (ii) on the cell injury/necrosis of human cardiomyoblasts caused by hydrogen peroxide (3 mM) was investigated. Regional myocardial ischaemia and reperfusion resulted in an infarct size of 66+/-3% of the area at risk, which was reduced by 3-aminobenzamide (to 44+/-2%, n=6), but not 3-aminobenzoic acid (66+/-5%, n=4). 3-aminobenzamide also reduced the postischaemic contractile dysfunction. 3-aminobenzamide, but not 3-aminobenzoic acid, abolished the increase in PARS activity as well as the cell injury/necrosis caused by hydrogen peroxide in the cardiomyoblasts. In conclusion, the PARS inhibitor 3-aminobenzamide reduces myocardial reperfusion injury in the pig, and attenuates the cell injury and death associated with oxidant stress in human cardiomyoblasts. We propose that the activation of PARS plays an important role in the injury associated with oxidant stress of the heart.

Coronary endothelial dysfunction after ischemia and reperfusion in the dog: a functional and morphological investigation.

Coronary endothelial dysfunction is characterized by a lower response to endothelium-dependent vasodilators such as acetylcholine (ACh) and serotonin (5HT), but by an unaltered response to endothelium-independent vasodilators such as nitroglycerin (NTG). In the present study, we investigated the vasoreactivity of the coronary bed in vivo, in a dog model of ischemia and reperfusion (I/R). We also assessed the morphology of the subepicardial arterioles and capillary bed by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Anesthetized, instrumented dogs were divided in two groups. One group (N = 27) was submitted to ischemia (60 min) and reperfusion (180 min) of the left circumflex coronary artery, the second group (N = 8) was sham-operated. Prior to and following I/R, ACh, 5-HT, and NTG were given intracoronarily. At the end of the experiment a 1 cm3 myocardial biopsy was processed for SEM. The sham-operated dogs showed a reduction of basal coronary flow of 11%, but the vasoreactivity to ACh and 5-HT remained constant. In the I/R group, basal coronary flow was reduced by 35% (p < 0.05), and the vasoreactivity to ACh and 5-HT, but not to NTG, was significantly blunted. At SEM the arterioles of the dogs submitted to I/R showed a marked adhesion of leukocytes associated with holes on the endothelial surface, while the capillary bed was free of changes and patient. Thus, following I/R, coronary endothelial dysfunction could be demonstrated in vivo by the blunting of the vasoreactive responses to two different endothelium-dependent vasodilators. The responses to NTG were not affected, probably because the function of the smooth muscle cell was preserved, and the capillary bed was patent.

Lung injury and degradation of extracellular matrix components by Aspergillus fumigatus serine proteinase.

Aspergillus fumigatus produces a variety of extracellular proteinases that are believed to be virulence factors towards Aspergillus-related lung disease. Among Aspergillus proteinases, the serine proteinase is thought to play a major virulent role because of its widespread production. Nevertheless, evidence of direct pulmonary injury caused by the A. fumigatus serine proteinase is still lacking. The purpose of our work was: (1) to provide evidence for a pivotal role of A. fumigatus serine proteinase in producing lung injury in an animal model, and (2) to investigate the broadness of the substrate specificity of the proteinase towards extracellular matrix components. To achieve this aim, the proteinase from an A. fumigatus strain isolated from human airways was purified by a four-step procedure, including cation exchange and hydrophobic interaction. High-performance capillary electrophoresis, SDS-PAGE, determination of K(m) towards synthetic substrates, and inhibitory studies were used to further characterize the A. fumigatus serine proteinase. With reference to extracellular matrix components, the A. fumigatus serine proteinase was shown to degrade human lung elastin at a higher rate than an equimolar amount of human neutrophil elastase. Human lung collagen, type I and type III collagens, as well as fibronectin, were quickly digested by the A. fumigatus serine proteinase. Finally, mice intratracheally injected with the proteinase showed a significant degree of lower respiratory tract destruction. We conclude that the A. fumigatus serine proteinase is capable per se of hydrolyzing the major structural barriers of the lung.

Characterisation of furoxancarbonitriles as a new class of vasodilators.

The synthesis, structural characterization, NO-donor properties, and in vitro vasodilating activities of a series of furoxancarbonitriles 2, 17-22a, b are reported. Some derivatives (2b, 2a, 18b, 21b, 22b) are more potent vasodilating agents than sodium nitroprusside (SNP), the reference compound, some others display similar potency (17b, 19b, 20b). Log EC50 values fit well on the linear correlation log EC50 versus log C0.1(1 min) (namely the logarithm of the concentration able to release 2.6 mumol l-1 min-1 of NO) found in a previous work. The haemodynamic profile in anaesthetised pigs for some selected derivatives (2a, b, 19a, b) is also presented. These profiles are consistent with that known for another furoxan NO-donor (4-hydroxymethyl-3-furoxancarboxamide, CAS 1609) and suggest similar characteristic of in vivo NO-release.

The effects of L-arginine on neointimal formation and vascular function following balloon injury in heritable hyperlipidaemic rabbits.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to determine the morphological and functional consequences of balloon angioplasty of the left subclavian artery of Froxfield heritable hyperlipidaemic (FHHL) rabbits and the influence of oral L-arginine therapy on these changes. METHODS: Sixteen-week-old FHHL rabbits were subjected to balloon injury of the left subclavian artery under halothane anaesthesia. Control rabbits (n = 7) were given free access to food and normal tap water. L-Arginine-treated rabbits were given L-arginine (5 g.l-1 in the drinking water for 2 days prior to angioplasty and then for either 2 weeks (n = 7) or 4 weeks (n = 7) after surgery. All rabbits were euthanised 28-30 days after surgery and blood and tissue removed for quantification of neointimal size and determination of endothelial function using isolated vessel tension studies. The ability of the endothelium to prevent platelet aggregation was determined by challenging a vessel ring with carbachol when incorporated into a whole blood sample in which platelet aggregation was induced with collagen. RESULTS: Balloon injury in non-treated rabbits resulted in the development of marked intimal hyperplasia (18.8[3.6]% of the area within the internal elastic lamina) while endothelial function remained intact. Maximum responses to carbachol and calcimycin were, respectively, a 66.6[14.7]% and 46.9[12.9]% relaxation of 5HT-induced tone, compared to 58.0[3.2]% and 39.8[9.4]% in non-injured vessels. Maximum contractile responses to 5HT and KCl were unaffected by injury. L-Arginine therapy alone had no effect on the vasodilator function of the endothelium, but reduced the endothelium-dependent inhibition of platelet aggregation (68.4[7.8] vs 109[10]% of the maximum extent of platelet aggregation in non-treated and 2-week L-arginine-treated non-injured vessels, respectively). L-Arginine significantly reduced the extent of neointimal formation (7.2[3.9]% of the area within the IEL; P < 0.05 vs. non-treated group). However, L-arginine significantly attenuated the relaxant responses to both carbachol (26.5[10.4]% and 31.4[9.4]% for 2- and 4-week L-arginine groups) and calcimycin (38.7[15.4]% and 16.4[10.7]%) in the injured artery (P < 0.05 compared to non-treated controls). CONCLUSIONS: L-Arginine reduces neointimal formation following balloon catheter injury in heritable hypercholesterolaemic rabbits, which is consistent with previous findings in normocholesterolaemic models. However, in the presence of hypercholesterolaemia, L-arginine has a detrimental effect on endothelial function following injury. This may be a consequence of the presence of lipids in the vascular wall on nitric oxide synthase activity.

Early induction of angiotensin I-converting enzyme in rat carotid artery after balloon injury.

Several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors in preventing the neointima formation found after denudation of the rat carotid artery by balloon injury. The aim of the present study was to determine the role of ACE in this model and to compare the treatment with the ACE inhibitor ramiprilat with that with the angiotensin II antagonist HR 720. The endothelial layer of the left carotid artery was removed using an inflated balloon catheter. Injured and control vessels were both submitted to histomorphological analysis and DNA content quantification at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 14 days after injury. Evaluation of neointima thickening demonstrated a slow but steady increase of neointima that was significant after day 6 and reached 30% of the lumen in 2 weeks. This was paralleled by an increase in DNA content, which was significant 4 days after injury. ACE mRNA levels were quantified by polymerase chain reaction after reverse transcription. Measurement of ACE mRNA levels revealed a significant upregulation 2 and 8 days after injury, with no significant difference when compared with control tissue at later time points. ACE activity was also significantly enhanced at 2 and 8 days after injury, with no significant difference when compared with control tissue at later time points. In addition, the treatment with ramiprilat was more efficient in reducing neointima formation than that with HR 720. These data underlie the role of ACE in this model of restenosis. The early induction of ACE expression after endothelial injury but before significant changes in the vessel structure suggests that ACE activity might be one of the mechanisms that trigger neointima formation in the rat.

Neutrophils in beige mice secrete normal amounts of cathepsin G and a 46 kDa latent form of elastase that can be activated extracellularly by proteolytic activity.

Among other phenotypic defects, the beige mouse is susceptible to infection and has large neutrophil granules that apparently secrete a decreased amount of elastolytic activity. We have shown using in vitro methods that cytosolic inhibitors in beige neutrophils are normal. Although cathepsin G is tightly bound to lysosomal membranes, normal amounts of activity are released in response to degranulating agents. Decreased elastolytic activity is secreted by beige neutrophils because elastase is present in the granules as a 46 kDa proenzyme, which can be activated extracellularly by a protease-dependent mechanism. The current experiments were undertaken to explore the in vivo functions of neutrophils from C57 BI/6J (bg/bg) beige mice using the model of casein-induced acute peritonitis; normal C57 BI/6J (+/+) mice served as controls. The kinetics of neutrophil accumulation in the peritoneum were normal, suggesting normal neutrophil migration. Cathepsin G activity in the cell-free supernatant of peritoneal lavage fluid was normal; elastolytic activity was initially very low but increased to about twice baseline level after 4 h at 25 degrees C and to about 20-fold at 36 h. The appearance of this activity was inhibited to varying degree (54 to 83%) by different protease inhibitors (pepstatin, antipain, aprotinin, leupeptin and chymostatin). We conclude that the decreased amount of elastolytic activity secreted by beige neutrophils into an inflammatory exudate is due to a genetic defect that results in production of a 46 kDa proelastase rather than the normal 29 kDa active elastase; the proelastase can be spontaneously activated by a protease-dependent mechanism. In light of these data, the use of the beige mouse as a model for the Chediak-Higashi syndrome, and as a model in which neutrophils do not produce elastase, must be reconsidered.

Neutrophil recruitment into the lungs is associated with increased lung elastase burden, decreased lung elastin, and emphysema in alpha 1 proteinase inhibitor-deficient mice.

The possibility that polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) recruited into the lung have the capability to damage alveolar septa was investigated in several strains of mice with different serum alpha 1 proteinase inhibitor levels and PMN lysosomal functions. After an intratracheal instillation of FMLP (200 micrograms), all strains of mice showed a similar PMN influx in alveolar spaces with an increase (approximately 4- to 5-fold) in bronchoalveolar lavage total cell count, which peaked at 24 to 48 hours. At this time, differential cell count in all strains revealed an approximately 40-fold increase in neutrophils. In C57BL/6J and pallid mice but not in NMRI mice, PMN influx was followed by a decrease in lung elastin content (-17% and -37%, respectively) and by the development of significant emphysema (mean linear intercept, +28% and +56%, respectively). The onset of the pulmonary lesion was preceded by a marked increase of neutrophil elastase burden in alveolar interstitium. Compared with NMRI mice, C57BL/6J and pallid mice have lower serum elastase inhibitory capacity levels. The degree of lung destruction was inversely correlated with elastase inhibitory capacity levels. Lung elastin degradation and emphysema may be induced by eliciting PMN into the lungs only in animals with a deficient anti-elastase screen. Compared with C57BL/6J mice, pallid mice showed a significantly greater lung elastin loss and a higher degree of emphysema after FMLP treatment. These differences may be accounted for by the higher baseline levels of interstitial elastase burden. It may be assumed that an enzymatically active elastase was already working on the lung interstitium before FMLP instillation in pallid mice.

A scanning electron microscopic investigation of genetic emphysema in tight-skin, pallid, and beige mice, three different C57 BL/6J mutants.

Three mutants of the C57 BL/6J strain, i.e., the tight-skin (Tsk), pallid (pa), and beige (bg) mice have been reported to develop spontaneous emphysema. However, the pathogenic mechanisms of this lesion may be different in the three mutants. Differences and similarities of these models were investigated by means of scanning electron microscopy. A light microscopic investigation provided the background for the SEM study. C57 BL/6J (control), pa, Tsk, and bg mice were killed when they were 1, 12, and 24 months old. At light microscopic investigation the lungs of the controls appeared normal at all ages. Those of the pa mice had normal appearance at 1 month, showed a few areas of air space enlargement with destruction of alveolar septa at 12 months, and had a generalized enlargement of the air spaces associated with distortion of alveolar septa at 24 months. The Tsk mice had a generalized panlobular emphysema at all ages. The lungs of the bg mice showed at all ages a generalized enlargement of the air spaces not accompanied by changes of the alveolar septa. At scanning electron microscopy the lung parenchyma of control mice was essentially normal at all ages. Both alveolar ducts and alveoli increased in size (the latter also in depth) with age. The number of interalveolar pores (Np) increased by 54% between 1 and 12 months of age and by 49% between 12 and 24 months. The parenchyma of pa mice did not differ significantly from that of the controls at 1 month. At 12 months the alveoli appeared to be larger. At 24 months in some fields alveolar ducts were enlarged, the alveoli were also enlarged and very shallow. Np was not different from controls at 1 month but greater at 12 (+ 49%) and 24 (+ 26%) months. The parenchyma of Tsk mice of all ages appeared distorted with enlargement of alveolar ducts and sacs and with alveoli with a large number of pores. These changes increased with age. Np was larger than the controls at all ages (+ 59% at 1 month, + 119% at 12 months, and + 80% at 24 months). The parenchyma of the bg mice of all ages appeared disorganized with large alveoli of different shapes. There was a deterioration with age. No difference in Np was seen at any age between bg and control mice. Parenchymal changes characterized by distortion and enlargement of alveolar ducts and sacs were observed, even if with different onset and extent, in all mutants. However, an increase in Np, which is considered to represent the early development of emphysema, was found only in Tsk and pa mice. In Tsk mice, high Np values were observed at all ages, whereas in pa mice Np was increased only late in life when the pulmonary lesion develops. These differences indicate different pathogenetic mechanisms for these three mutants.