Disaster waste management challenges and enabling factors for strategic planning: The case of the Beirut Port explosion.

Disasters occur in both developed and developing countries, generating large amounts of disaster waste including construction and demolition (C&D) waste that needs to be appropriately managed. While developed countries are capable of implementing adequate disaster waste management (DWM) strategies to facilitate their recovery processes, developing countries generally struggle to find the resources and expertise needed to develop such strategies. Lebanon is a developing country vexed by several systemic challenges that hindered its abilities to manage disaster waste. In this paper, we focus on the Beirut Port explosion (4 August 2020), which generated more than 800,000 tonnes of disaster wastes. This study first assesses the executed strategies and identifies their enabling factors and implementation challenges. It then proposes a framework for the proper management of disaster waste, which was validated through 18 in-depth interviews with experts and stakeholders involved in disaster management. Interview notes and transcripts were analyzed using an inductive-deductive process that allowed to identify themes using the constant comparative method. The data revealed that the main barriers toward implementing a successful DWM strategy were the absence of appropriate technologies, infrastructure, expertise, legislative framework and financial resources. The study concludes by proposing a DWM roadmap that includes contingency, risk reduction and implementation plans (IPs) that can enhance decision-making and ease the recovery process.

Development and application of a prioritization and rehabilitation decision support tool for uncontrolled waste disposal sites in developing countries.

The uncontrolled dumping of solid waste is widespread in many developing countries with most of all generated wastes being indiscriminately disposed of in an unsanitary manner that entails significant environmental and public health risks. It is imperative to prioritize dumpsites based on their relative risks so that the necessary control and remedial measures can be undertaken. This research aimed to formulate a pragmatic prioritization and rehabilitation decision tool that can be utilized in low- and middle-income countries to guide decision makers in prioritizing dumpsites for remediation and in identifying the most suitable rehabilitation option for municipal as well as construction and demolition waste. The established prioritization model presents an integrated, risk-based approach to developing a decision-making tool for dumpsite prioritization and rehabilitation. The rehabilitation tool drew on a decision tree module to develop the appropriate remedial measures required for each site. The model proved to be effective in prioritizing uncontrolled solid waste disposal sites in Lebanon and for adopting control and remedial measures that can considerably improve decision-making. The improper disposal of solid waste adversely affects public health and the environment in, to a greater or lesser extent, almost all low- and middle-income countries. Considering that it is unfeasible to remediate all uncontrolled solid waste disposal sites at once, the proposed model facilitates the evaluation process by prioritizing sites for closure and remediation based on their relative risks. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:436-445. © 2022 SETAC.

Predicting the Intention to Sort Waste at Home in Rural Communities in Lebanon: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour.

Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) such as Lebanon have limited technical, economic, and social infrastructures to manage municipal solid waste properly. Understanding what motivates citizens to sort waste at home is paramount to designing effective, efficient, and equitable waste management interventions. Within the solid waste management project "RES-Q" in Southern Lebanon, we investigated the socio-cognitive predictors of waste sorting in a sample of 767 households from the targeted area using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). Perceived behavioural control (ß = 0.96, p < 0.001), perceived norms (ß = −0.30, p < 0.001), and current behaviour (ß = 0.06, p < 0.001) were the strongest predictors of intention; attitude toward separating waste was not a significant predictor (ß = 0.04, p = 0.3881). Consequently, future behavioural interventions should build capability and opportunity to perform the behaviour before normalising it. For example, citizens should receive bins and bags to separate waste and be shown how to perform the behaviour and how easy and convenient it is to increase their behavioural control. In parallel, waste collection and treatment infrastructures must be in place so that citizens can see that sorting waste is a social norm. These actions will ensure the success of future behavioural interventions within the RES-Q project and beyond.

Assessing the environmental risk and pollution status of soil and water resources in the vicinity of municipal solid waste dumpsites.

Municipal solid waste management remains a major challenge for many developing countries where unsanitary and environmentally damaging practices, such as open dumping and burning of wastes, are consistently utilized as means of waste disposal. This study aimed to assess the impact of local dumpsites in a region in Southern Lebanon and to assess/determine the level of pollution they cause on local ecosystems and the concomitant risks to public health. Accordingly, soil and water samples were collected from the seven dumpsites that were investigated over the course of two seasons. Several biological, chemical, and physical parameters were examined, with the results being utilized to calculate a number of environmental indices. Results indicated that several soil parameters including TN (700-2400 mg/kg), pH (8.3-8.7), COD (39-1995 mg/kg), and sulfate levels (17.8-301.6 mg/kg) were altered by the dumpsites. Heavy metal concentrations varied between dumpsites; however, the most commonly prevalent metals across all dumps were Fe (992-41,500 mg/kg), Cr (17.4-139.5 mg/kg), Zn (24.1-177.4 mg/kg), Cu (9.42-148.2 mg/kg), and Mn (25.2-776.5 mg/kg), though recorded concentrations exceeded permissible limits only in certain instances. Evidently, soil samples collected at dumpsites had higher concentrations compared to the samples collected away from dumpsites reaching 27 times more in certain locations. The altered parameters have a direct effect on soil fertility and, if biomagnified, could disrupt crop yields and impact human health. Physiochemical properties and heavy metal concentrations in water samples were not significantly altered and were found to be within permissible limits. However, it is crucial to develop a monitoring and remediation plan to decrease the percolation of leachate to water resources.

Towards improved governance for sustainable solid waste management in Lebanon: Centralised vs decentralised approaches.

Solid waste management is a multifaceted task that incorporates a diverse set of shareholders and operations. To create a sustainable solid waste management system, governments should select the most advantageous organisational structure, given a country's current setting; contextualising the sector's administrative structure in accordance with a nation's organisational constraints. This research aimed to determine the recommended level of administrative and financial decentralisation for each solid waste management operation and explore the susceptibilities and prospects of each level of governance in Lebanon. Primary data was gathered from environmental experts and concerned organisations using a semi-structured in-depth interview. Results revealed that the optimal model for solid waste management in the case of Lebanon incurs devolving collection, which would assimilate local populations into the decision-making process and reduce opposition towards devised solid waste management plans. Delegation and the construction of centralised treatment facilities is recommended as it incentivises municipal cooperation and permits the installation of methodologies and technologies that reflect the limitations, public attitudes, and waste dynamics of each distinct geographical territory. Deconcentrating disposal would limit the number of landfills constructed and facilitate monitoring. Administrative and constitutional reformations that clearly define the roles and responsibilities of public agencies would reduce the influence of the central authority on peripheral states. The establishment of municipal cooperation models would diminish regional economic disparities by enhancing the level of communication and collaboration between subnational bodies. The performance of decentralised strategies should be continuously monitored to ensure that local administrators are held accountable.

Water reuse as an incentive to promote sustainable agriculture in Lebanon: Stakeholders' perspectives.

While technical and economic feasibility of water reuse projects is requisite for implementation, issues in relation to cultural values, public acceptability, and perceptions should not be marginalized. This research focuses on examining the Lebanese stakeholders' knowledge, perception, and attitude toward the reuse of treated wastewater and on exploring potential enabling factors. Accordingly, in-depth interviews were conducted with stakeholders from concerned ministries, Lebanese Farmers Syndicate, farmers, and religious figures. The reported perceived barriers are categorized into ethical, religious, social, and economical. Various enabling factors that can ameliorate the management of potential perceived barriers are recommended, including enforcing laws, setting new regulations and quality standards, involving the public all through the project process, ensuring regular monitoring and evaluation, and developing financial policies and mechanisms. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2019;00:000-000. © 2019 SETAC.

Factors influencing the reuse of reclaimed water as a management option to augment water supplies.

The reuse of treated wastewater, whether direct or indirect, can raise public concerns as a result of the overall risk perception. As such, community acceptance plays a significant role in the implementation of alternative water systems. Public attitudes towards water reuse are highly influenced by perceived health risk, religious prohibition, political issues, and the degree of human contact with recycled water. In most of the Mediterranean countries, wastewater is reused to different extents either within planned or unplanned schemes. Unfortunately, there are few in-depth studies of the socio-cultural aspects of reuse projects in developing countries, and Lebanon is no exception. Accordingly, this research will comprehensively tackle the issue of public knowledge, perceptions, and acceptance from different perspectives in an effort to provide national baseline information on wastewater reuse that is needed for future regulatory and developmental projects. As such, a survey was developed, tested, and administered. Results showed an inverse relation between the degree of human contact with the treated wastewater and public acceptance. People were found to be more inclined towards reuse for purposes with minimal human contact such as landscaping and agriculture with opposition when it came to use for personal use. Moreover, the results showed a general lack of trust in governing institutions and authorities, which could explain perceived health risks and perceptions of risk resulting from system failure. Overall, the willingness to use treated wastewater was found to vary as a function of the "disgust factor," religious beliefs, and perceptions of a high risk towards contracting waterborne diseases. The disgust towards reuse of treated wastewater was found to be a strong predictor affecting willingness to reuse whereby those who believed it is disgusting to reuse treated wastewater were found to be on average, three times less likely to reuse treated wastewater as compared to those who did not declare disgust. Similarly, a significant association was found between religious beliefs and respondents' willingness to use treated wastewater. Interviewees who thought treated wastewater reuse is not religiously accepted were, on average, twice less likely to use treated wastewater as compared to those who did not believe that reuse contradicts with their religious beliefs. Additionally, people's perceptions on associating the spread of water-borne diseases with reuse were found to be significant. Those who perceived that reusing treated wastewater would lead to diseases and affect the human health, were on average, twice less likely to accept reuse. Developing a comprehensive strategy that integrates increasing awareness and knowledge, setting policies related to water reuse, building public trust and communication channels, increasing public participation/engagement in decision making, and developing a sustainable management framework is thus crucial before any investments are made in reclaimed water-reuse projects.

Assessment of Household Disposal of Pharmaceuticals in Lebanon: Management Options to Protect Water Quality and Public Health.

Pharmaceuticals comprise an extensive group of compounds whose release into the environment has potential adverse impacts on human health and aquatic ecosystems. In many developing countries the extent of the problem and the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in water bodies are generally unknown. While thousands of tons of pharmaceutical substances are used annually, little information is known about their final fate after their intended use. This paper focuses on better understanding the management of human-use pharmaceutical wastes generated at the residential level within the Administrative Beirut Area. A survey encompassing 300 households was conducted. Results revealed that the majority of respondents were found to dispose of their unwanted medications, mainly through the domestic solid waste stream. Willingness to participate in a future collection program was found to be a function of age, medical expenditure, and the respondents' views towards awareness and the importance of establishing a collection system for pharmaceutical wastes. Respondents who stated a willingness to participate in a collection program and/or those who believed in the need for awareness programs on the dangers of improper medical waste disposal tended to favor more collection programs managed by the government as compared to a program run by pharmacies or to the act of re-gifting medication to people in need. Ultimately, collaboration and coordination between concerned stakeholders are essential for developing a successful national collection plan.

Environmental management practices in the Lebanese pharmaceutical industries: implementation strategies and challenges.

This research attempts to provide an understanding of the Lebanese pharmaceutical industries' environmental management strategies, priorities, and perceptions as well as drivers, barriers, and incentives regarding the implementation of the voluntary ISO 14001 Environmental Management System. Accordingly, a semistructured in-depth interview was conducted with the pharmaceutical industries. The findings revealed a significant lack of knowledge about the standard among the industries. The main perceived drivers for adopting the ISO 14001 are improving the companies' image and overcoming international trade. The main perceived barriers for acquiring the standard are the lack of government support and the fact that ISO 14001 is not being legally required or enforced by the government. Moreover, results revealed that adopting the ISO 14001 standard is not perceived as a priority for the Lebanese pharmaceutical industries. Although the cost of certification was not considered as a barrier for the implementation of ISO 14001, the majority of the pharmaceutical industries are neither interested nor willing to adopt the Standard if they are not exposed to any regulatory pressure or external demand. They are more concerned with quality and safety issues with the most adopted international standard among the industries being the ISO 9001 quality management system. This study highlights the aspect that financial barriers are not always the hurdles for implementing environmental management strategies in developing countries and underscores the need for regulatory frameworks and enforcement.

Hand washing among Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip: attitudes and practices.

Regular and proper hand washing is a low-cost and effective intervention to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. The authors' study aimed to assess the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics associated with attitudes and practices of hand washing before eating in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. It also assessed parents' participation in the personal hygiene of their children. Results revealed that almost all participants believed that it is always necessary to wash one's hands before eating. Females had higher rates than males for washing hands before eating as well as for helping with child hygiene. Not surprisingly, a positive relationship existed between educational level and attitudes and practice of washing hands before eating. The authors recommend that governments, ministries, and different nongovernmental organizations have an active role in developing and implementing programs in order to improve the health of their communities. Such programs should be conducted in all localities and at all levels including homes, schools, and public domains.

The challenges of sustainable access to safe drinking water in rural areas of developing countries: case of Zawtar El-Charkieh, Southern Lebanon.

Adequate and safe water is important for human health and well-being, economic production, and sustainable development. Failure to ensure the safety of drinking water may expose the community to the risk of outbreaks of waterborne and infectious diseases. Although drinking water is a basic human right, many people do not have access to safe and adequate drinking water or proper sanitation facilities. The authors conducted a study to assess the quantity, cost, continuity, coverage, and quality of drinking water in the village of Zawtar El-Charkieh, Lebanon. Their aim was to identify the challenges of sustainable access to safe drinking water in order to determine the short-term management actions and long-term strategies to improve water quality. Results revealed that contamination of the source, absence of any disinfection method or insufficient dose, poor maintenance operations, and aging of the networks are significant factors contributing to water contamination during the storage and distribution process. Establishing a comprehensive drinking water system that integrates water supply, quality, and management as well as associated educational programs in order to ensure the safety and sustainability of drinking water supplies is essential.

Effectiveness of wastewater management in rural areas of developing countries: a case of Al-Chouf Caza in Lebanon.

Alike many developing countries, Lebanon lacks a national wastewater management strategy that can effectively protect public health and environmental quality. This has led the local communities and municipalities to plan and implement their own arrangements for wastewater treatment systems. However, most municipalities still lack the human and financial resources, management capabilities, and environmental awareness necessary to implement wastewater management in an environmentally sound manner. As such, the effectiveness of these systems, particularly with regard to the quality of the treated effluent, warrants evaluation. Accordingly, a performance evaluation of the treatment/disposal systems, taking three villages in Al-Chouf Caza in Lebanon as a case study, was carried out. The conducted field work, visual assessment, and laboratory analyses of effluent discharges revealed that the existing systems for wastewater treatment in the three villages are either not properly functioning or operational but ineffective and, consequently, hardly achieve any treatment higher than primary. Although developing countries are being encouraged to implement wastewater treatment systems with the promise of financial aid from developed nations, it is important that local conditions are considered carefully to make full use of any aid. It is very crucial to take into account the economic status of the community and the municipality in question. There is no point in adopting the most advanced technology for wastewater treatment if there is no mechanism to ensure maximum efficiency.

Decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management: applicability in developing countries.

Providing reliable and affordable wastewater treatment in rural areas is a challenge in many parts of the world, particularly in developing countries. The problems and limitations of the centralized approaches for wastewater treatment are progressively surfacing. Centralized wastewater collection and treatment systems are costly to build and operate, especially in areas with low population densities and dispersed households. Developing countries lack both the funding to construct centralized facilities and the technical expertise to manage and operate them. Alternatively, the decentralized approach for wastewater treatment which employs a combination of onsite and/or cluster systems is gaining more attention. Such an approach allows for flexibility in management, and simple as well as complex technologies are available. The decentralized system is not only a long-term solution for small communities but is more reliable and cost effective. This paper presents a review of the various decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management. A discussion as to their applicability in developing countries, primarily in rural areas, and challenges faced is emphasized all through the paper. While there are many impediments and challenges towards wastewater management in developing countries, these can be overcome by suitable planning and policy implementation. Understanding the receiving environment is crucial for technology selection and should be accomplished by conducting a comprehensive site evaluation process. Centralized management of the decentralized wastewater treatment systems is essential to ensure they are inspected and maintained regularly. Management strategies should be site specific accounting for social, cultural, environmental and economic conditions in the target area.

Factors influencing development of management strategies for the Abou Ali River in Lebanon II: seasonal and annual variation.

The water quality of a river at any point reflects several major influences including but are not limited to climatic conditions and anthropogenic inputs. Assessing these influences is essential for managing land and water resources within a particular river catchment. The objectives of this study were to identify the causes of increasing or decreasing trends in the concentrations of various water quality parameters in the Abou Ali River in North Lebanon and to account for the consequential variations both annual and seasonal (low/high flow). The assessment was conducted at the end of the dry season in October 2002 and 2003 and the end of the wet season in March 2003 and 2004. Results established that dissolved oxygen levels were consistently higher at the end of the wet season. The concentrations of biochemical oxygen demand, ammonia nitrogen and ortho-phosphates did not exhibit a clear seasonal or annual variation. While the levels of total dissolved solids and nitrate nitrogen exhibited a decreasing trend in urban catchments, an increasing trend was observed in rural, agricultural and forested areas. The findings of this study reinforce the notion that management of point and non-point sources should be integrated as the combination of both sources connected with land use results in deleterious effects on water quality. The lack of good quality water hinders economic development and the potential for long term sustainability.

Factors influencing development of management strategies for the Abou Ali River in Lebanon I: spatial variation and land use.

Surface water bodies are progressively subject to increasing stress as a result of environmentally degrading processes primarily related to anthropogenic activities. This study assesses and examines the impact of land use and land-based activities on the spatial variation in water quality of the Abou Ali River in North Lebanon. It is the first detailed study of its kind in Lebanon and adds to the existing knowledge by shedding light on a relatively small Mediterranean river in a developing country where there is a paucity of such studies. The assessment was conducted at the end of the dry season in 2002 and 2003 and the end of the wet season in 2003 and 2004. The study has demonstrated the importance of anthropogenic influences on the water quality of the Abou Ali River Basin, as concentrations of most contaminants were higher at locations with greatest human activity. The most adversely affected area was the section of the river that flows through an entirely urbanized and highly populated region, the Tripoli conurbation. Upstream rural sites were enriched by contaminants primarily from non-point sources such as agricultural runoff and poultry litter whereas contaminant concentrations at the urban sites were enriched by a combination of sewage discharge and flow of contaminants from upstream. If the Abou Ali River is to be utilized as a managed water resource and its water quality sustained, point source discharges will require treatment and land use management must be planned to minimize the impact of diffuse source pollution on the river. A high priority should be given to the implementation and enforcement of the precautionary and polluter pays principles. Moreover, an effective legal, economic and institutional framework is required to encourage investment in waste reduction and control and to introduce environmentally sound practices.