Effect of aminoguanidine, a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, on ocular infection with herpes simplex virus in Balb/c mice.

PURPOSE: To study the effect of aminoguanidine (AMG), an inhibitor of nitric oxide production, on the ocular infection of Balb/c mice with herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 strain F and HSV-2 strain G. METHODS: Animals were treated with different amounts of AMG (0.5, 0.1, and 0.05 mg/mouse) by topical application in the eye from postinfection (PI) days -2 through +5, considering 0 the day of infection. At different PI days, development of herpetic keratitis was evaluated in treated and control mice. RESULTS: Treated animals showed a dose-dependent increase in ocular disease after viral infection, compared with control animals. Viral titers in ocular washings were higher in AMG-treated mice (PI day 2, HSV-1: AMG 0.5 mg, 1.3 x 10(3) plaque-forming units (PFU)/ml; control, 0. 22 x 10(2) PFU/ml, P < 0.025). At PI day 3, control corneas had only scattered inflammatory cells, whereas those from treated animals showed a conspicuous infiltrate consisting primarily of neutrophils. Viral titers were also higher in brains of treated mice. These animals died earlier and in a greater proportion than control animals (percentage of mortality, PI day 12, HSV-1: AMG 0.5 mg, 40% +/- 4%; control, 18% +/- 3%, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate an inhibitory effect of nitric oxide on HSV ocular infection.

Priming or tolerization of the B- and Th2-dependent immune response by the oral administration of OVA-DNP is determined by the antigen dosage.

In the present report we established antigen dosages that induce oral tolerance of Th1 and Th2 lymphocytes or instead prime B- and Th2-dependent immune response and induce the tolerance of Th1 lymphocytes. Using different hapten-carrier systems, we found that low doses of OVA-DNP administered orally primed B and Th2 cells. On the other hand, no priming of B or Th2 cells was found in high-dose-OVA-DNP-fed rats. Low-dose-OVA-DNP-fed rats showed a strong mucosal immune response, with a high number of IgA anti-DNP antibody-forming cells in the lamina propria, while no mucosal immune response was observed in high-dose-OVA-DNP-fed rats. Thirty days after the immunization, tolerization of Th1 lymphocytes was confirmed in low- and high-dose-OVA-DNP-fed rats by diminished antigen-specific proliferation in vitro, reduced titers of anti-DNP IgG2a in serum, reduced expression of CD25 and CD134 molecules in cultured cells exposed to the antigen, reduced DTH reaction, and reduced IL-2 synthesis in culture. On the other hand, a high dose of OVA-DNP led to Th1 and Th2 tolerance, with an inhibition of specific IgG1 and IgG2a anti-DNP antibodies in serum after a parenteral challenge with OVA in CFA. This functional evidence was supported by the direct examination of IL-2 and IL-4 production. Furthermore, whereas in vitro assays seem to indicate that active suppression could be the responsible for Th1 tolerization in low-dose-OVA-DNP-fed rats, the results obtained after the transference of spleen or MLN cells to naive recipients support the idea that a subtractive mechanism is behind the tolerization of Th1 lymphocytes.

Long-term antibodies after an oral immunization with cholera toxin are synthesized in the bone marrow and may play a role in the regulation of memory B-cell maintenance at systemic and mucosal sites.

To study the importance of the bone marrow in the long-term antibody response, IgG and IgA antitoxin antibody-forming cells were evaluated by ELISPOT in Peyer's patches, mesenteric lymph nodes, spleen, lamina propria of the small intestine and bone marrow at several times after oral immunization with cholera toxin. The mesenteric lymph node was the site having the major frequency of IgG antitoxin during the first two weeks after priming, whereas lamina propria was the site with a major number of IgA antitoxin antibody-forming cells. However, from 3 weeks until 10 months after priming, bone marrow became the site with the major frequency of IgG, and especially IgA antitoxin antibody-forming cells (without taking into account the lamina propria). This result indicates that bone marrow was responsible for the long-term antibody response and raises questions concerning the mechanisms involved in the maintenance of antibody production. The importance of bone marrow as a site of antibody production was great when we analysed results as the true contribution of the total number of antitoxin antibody-forming cells, taking into account the number of cells recovered from each organ. When we analysed the anatomical location of memory B and T cells by adoptive transference, we found that cells from mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen were able to transfer a strong antibody response to naive syngeneic recipients, whereas bone marrow cells transferred a weak antibody response.

Oral administration of one dose of cholera toxin induces a systemic immune response prior to a mucosal immune response by a direct presentation in the spleen.

In the present report the results indicate that the oral administration of one dose of CT in rats results in an antibody immune response in the spleen 48 h later, whereas no antitoxin antibody forming cells were found in the Peyer patches (PP), mesenteric lymph node (MLN) and lamina propria (LP) of the small intestine. At this time the main isotype of the antitoxin antibodies in the spleen were IgG and IgM, 5 days after the priming, few antitoxin AFC were observed in the MLN, IgG being the main isotype, whereas no IgM antitoxin AFC were found. At 1 week after priming the number of antitoxin AFC in the MLN reached similar values to those observed in the spleen. When cells from the spleen of rats primed orally with one dose of CT were cultured during 4 days in the presence of inhibitory doses of anti-Ia MAb (OX6), the number of antitoxin AFC was diminished when compared with that observed when cells were cultured in the absence of anti-Ia. The main isotype of antitoxin AFC observed when cells were analyzed after culture was IgM and it was the isotype most affected by the treatment with MAb anti-Ia. These results strongly suggest that an in situ presentation of the antigen did occur in the spleen. On the other hand, when the secondary immune response was studied 48 h after boosting, antitoxin AFC were found in the PP, MLN, SP and LP and 5 days after the booster a 20-30-fold increase was observed in all lymphoid tissues studied, indicating that the secondary immune response found in the spleen was mainly due to the recruitment of memory cells from Peyer's patches. However, when spleen cells were cultured 48 h after the immunization in the presence of inhibitory doses of anti-Ia a little decrease in the number of AFC was observed when compared with the controls (in absence of anti-Ia). The analysis of the antitoxin antibodies in sera and intestinal fluids were in line with the results presented above. The results shown in this report indicate that the systemic immune response observed after the oral administration of CT could be due in part to an in situ presentation of the antigen in the systemic compartments, especially in the spleen.

Age-related changes of naive and memory CD4 rat lymphocyte subsets in mucosal and systemic lymphoid organs.

The purpose of this study was to investigate in rats, by double-label immunofluorescence and flow cytometric analysis, the age related changes in the CD4 subset of gut-associated lymphoid tissues and spleen. We found that the percentage of CD4+ T cells in Peyer's patches (PP) and spleen (SP) increased during the first 6 weeks after weaning. An age-related decrease of the CD4 subset was observed in SP of aged rats, but not in their PP. In all lymphoid tissues studied, an age-related decrease of the Thy-1+ subset was observed from weaning to 2 years of age. Analysis of the naive CD4 subset (CD45RC+) showed that in SP this subset increased during the first 9 weeks of age, and declined in aged rats. However, in PP this subset presented a slow decrease from weaning until 2 years of age. Together with the decrease of the naive subset, a sharp increase of the memory/activated CD4+ cells (CD45RC- Thy-1-) was observed in PP, and to a lesser extent in SP. When the maturation of the CD4 T cells in PP was followed during the first week after weaning, we found that an important proportion of this subset changes its phenotype at this time, from recent thymic emigrant (CD45RC- Thy-1+) to naive T cell (CD45RC+ Thy-1-) and then to activated/memory cell (CD45RC- Thy-1-). Therefore it appeared that CD4 T cells from PP mature faster than SP CD4 T cells, and they are not subject to the deleterious effect of aging. One surprising point was the different kinetics of the CD4 T cells observed in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN). No age-related changes were observed in the CD4 subset at this site. Furthermore, the percentage of the CD45RC+ cells did not decrease in aged rats, and in the first 9 weeks of life an increase of this subset was observed.

Oral administration of a bacterial immunomodulator enhances the immune response to cholera toxin.

Attempts to achieve IgA responses in the intestine by oral immunization with non replicating antigens have been characterized by ineffective responses of short duration unless long term dosages are administered. Cholera toxin (CT) is an exception in that it is able to produce a high secretory and systemic immune response. We study the effects of a bacterial immunomodulator [3 x 10(10) Propionibacterium granulosum ml-1 and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 5 mg ml-1] on the immune response to CT orally administered to Wistar rats. The immunomodulator was orally administered as follows: in schedule 1 during 7 days prior to the first dose of CT; and in schedule 2, 2 days before, together, and 3 days after the first dose of CT. Schedules 1 and 2 were effective in increasing the specific IgA in the intestinal fluid and specific IgG in serum (P < 0.001) when compared to controls. Besides, schedule 2 was more effective than schedule 1 when the levels of specific IgG in serum or specific IgA in intestinal fluid was measured (P < 0.05). Total IgA in the intestinal fluid was increased in rats receiving the immunomodulator (P < 0.01). However, the ratio of specific IgA per total IgA was higher in rats receiving treatment 1 or 2 when compared to controls (P < 0.01). The number of antitoxin antibody producing cells was not increased in the Peyer patches, but a significant increase was observed in the mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen when compared to controls (P < 0.05). The administration of LPS alone produced an increase in the antitoxin immune response when compared to controls, but it was lower than those produced by the administration of the immunomodulator. These results indicate that this immunomodulator is an effective adjuvant of the mucosal and systemic immune response to CT. The mechanisms of action possibly involve nonespecific and specific modulations of the immune response.

Reversible effects on B and T cells of the gut-associated lymphoid tissues in rats malnourished during suckling: impaired induction of the immune response to intra-Peyer patches immunization with cholera toxin.

To define the alterations provoked by malnutrition during suckling (20 pups/dam) in the gut-associated lymphoid tissues of rats, Peyer patch (PP) and mesenteric lymph node (MLN) cells were studied by flow cytometry. After weaning (21 days of age), rats malnourished during suckling (MNR) showed an increase in the CD4+ CD45RC+ subset together with a decrease in the CD4+ CD45RC- subset (P < 0.01). These alterations remained even after 3 weeks of refeeding with stock diet. The CD4+CD8+ subset was not increased in the MNR, indicating that a release of cortical thymocytes did not occur. At weaning the percentage of CD4+Thy1+ cells was decreased in the MNR, indicating a low number of cells released from the thymus. When the B cell lineage was studied, we found a decreased percentage of precursors in the bone marrow and a decreased percentage of mature B cells in the periphery. When the MNR were immunized intra-PP with cholera toxin (CT) after 1 week of refeeding, the specific IgG and IgA and IgM antibody-forming cells (measured by ELISPOT) were diminished in the PP, MLN, and spleen when compared to the age-matched controls (P < 0.001). These results were coincident with the ELISA titers obtained in the sera and in the intestinal fluids. When CT was administered after 2 weeks of refeeding, the number of IgM anti-toxin AFC approached control values, but the number of IgA and IgG AFC continued to be low. When 3 weeks of refeeding was allowed before the CT delivery, the immune response in the MNR approached control values. These results indicate that malnutrition during suckling provokes alterations in B and T lymphocytes and produces a lack in the induction of the primary and secondary immune responses in the GALT which reversed after 3 weeks of refeeding.

The bone marrow as a site of antibody production after a mucosal immunization.

To study the importance of the bone marrow in the production of specific antibodies after a mucosal immunization with cholera toxin, the IgG, IgA and IgM specific antibody forming cells were evaluated by ELISPOT in Peyer patches, mesenteric lymph node (MLN), spleen, blood and bone marrow (BM). When 50-day-old rats were immunized intra-Peyer patches, a similar number of IgG and IgA antitoxin antibody forming cells (AFC) were found in the BM, whereas in the other lymphoid tissues a higher number of IgG antitoxin AFC were found. In all sites the peak of AFC was obtained 2 weeks after immunization. The administration of CT to 35-week-old rats resulted in a stronger immune response in all lymphoid tissues studied, but the proportion of antitoxin AFC contributed by the BM had not changed. One oral dose of cholera toxin resulted in a low number of antitoxin AFC, whereas when two or three doses of CT were administered orally an increase in the number of AFC was observed in the BM, reaching similar or higher numbers of IgG and IgA AFC than in the spleen. In all cases the highest number of AFC/10(6) cells was observed in the MLN, whereas antitoxin AFC were not found in the blood. The total number of AFC recovered from each organ was calculated taken into account that the BM of one femur represents 9% of the total BM. So, it was found that the BM is an important site in the production of IgG antitoxin antibodies, being the main site in the IgA antitoxin antibody production.

Impairment of B and T cell maturation in gut associated lymphoid tissues due to malnutrition during lactation.

Previously we found that malnutrition during lactation in rats produces an impairment in the immune response to cholera toxin. In this report we found that malnutrition during lactation provokes in 28-day-old rats an increase of Thy1+ c mu+ cells in gut associated lymphoid tissues concomitantly with a decrease of sIgA+ B cells. No differences were found in the percentages of the IgM+ B cell populations. Furthermore, no differences were found in the Peyer's patch (PP) and mesenteric lymph node (MLN) T cell subsets in weaning rats when compared to controls. However, after 1 week of refeeding a higher percentage of the Thy1+ c mu- subset together with a lower percentage of CD5+, CD4+, and CD8+ T cells, were found in malnourished rats when compared to controls. The above results may indicate that B-cell maturation is delayed in malnourished rats at two stages of differentiation: (a) in the passage of pre-B cells (Thy1+ c mu+) to immature B cells (s mu+), and (b) in the switch from s mu+ B cells to s alpha+ B cells. The decrease of CD5+, CD4+, and CD8+ T cells together with an increase of the Thy1+ c mu- subset in gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) may indicate that T-cell maturation is also delayed. Results obtained at weaning may be due to an engraftment by maternal milk-derived lymphocytes in the pups.

Deficient induction of the immune response to oral immunization with cholera toxin in malnourished rats during suckling.

Malnourished rats during suckling were orally immunized with cholera toxin (CT) after different periods of refeeding. Intestinal fluids, sera, and supernatant fluids from cultured mesenteric lymph node (MLN) cells were obtained after rats were given three doses of CT and analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to evaluate the specific antibody response. Serum-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgA, and IgM were severely diminished in malnourished rats immunized with three doses of CT after 1 week of refeeding when compared with those of controls. Also, a decreased IgA ELISA titer of the intestinal fluids and abrogation of the capacity to neutralize the CT in the intestinal ligated loop test were found. When a booster was given at 113 days of age, the immune response continued to be affected in the serum and the intestinal fluid. The results from the analysis of the supernatant fluids from cultured MLN cells were coincident with those mentioned above. When one dose of CT was administered into Peyer's patches (PP) after 1 week of refeeding, an impaired immune response was found in the intestinal fluid of malnourished rats during suckling compared with that of controls. This result together with the analysis of supernatant from MLN and PP cell cultures suggests that antigen triggering in the PP was affected. When the refeeding period was extended to 30 days and then the first dose of CT was administered, the antibody immune responses in intestinal fluid serum and supernatant fluid approached control values. These observations reinforce the fact that the gut-associated lymphoid tissue immaturity of the rats when they received the first CT dose (at 28 days old) was the main reason for the decreased immune response observed in the experimental group.

In vitro antiphagocytic effect of Melia azedarach leaf extracts on mouse peritoneal exudate cells.

The effect of Melia azedarach L. (Meliaceae) leaf extract on the phagocytic capability and respiratory burst of mouse peritoneal exudate cells was studied. The extract inhibited the phagocytosis of opsonized sheep erythrocytes. This inhibition was both dose- and time-dependent and reverted 48 h after removing the extract from the culture medium. Furthermore, chemiluminescence in treated cells was also impaired using either receptor (opsonized zymosan) or post-receptor (PMA) stimuli.

Effect of Melia azedarach L. leaf extracts on human complement and polymorphonuclear leukocytes.

The effect of the water extract of Melia azedarach L. (Meliaceae) leaves on human complement and polymorphonuclear leukocytes was investigated. This extract showed a strong anticomplementary activity, which was more pronounced in the classical pathway assay. The extract did not affect the phagocytic activity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, nor the respiratory burst of these cells as measured by the nitro blue tetrazolium reduction assay.

Long term effects of malnutrition during lactation on GALT.

In this report we present data that help to define the impact of malnutrition during the suckling period on the gut associated lymphoid tissues (GALT). Fifty-day old rats malnourished during lactation presented a diminished percentage of s alpha +B cells and IgA level in the intestinal fluid. Also, a decrease in the CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets was found. At 120 days of age the percentage of s alpha +B cells and IgA level in the intestinal fluid was similar to the control. However, the percentage of T cells remained altered. When three doses of chorea toxin were administered orally since day 28, the IgA anti CT antibodies were diminished in the intestinal fluid, while the immunization schedule started after seven days of refeeding (28 days of age). This impairment of the immune response remained even after a CT booster was given to animals 113 days old. This diminishing in the CD4+ T cells may be the major cause of the nonresponsiveness described herewith.

[Comparison of various methods for the measurement of the humoral immune response in mice vaccinated with aphthous fever virus]. / Comparación de distintos métodos para la medición de la respuesta inmune humoral de ratones vacunados con el virus de la fiebre aftosa.

Kinetics of the humoral immune primary response and seven-day secondary response of adult CF1 mice to FMDV O1 Campos adjuvanted in aluminium hydroxide-saponin (AHS) or in oil emulsion (OE) were evaluated by means of ELISA and passive hemagglutination (PH). Analysis of the response to AHS vaccine showed that ELISA measured maximal titres of primary response at 23 days post-vaccination (dpv), and at day 17 of secondary response, while PH detected maximal titres for primary as well as secondary response around day 60 pv. Mice immunized with OE vaccine studied by ELISA presented a plateau of primary response around 40 dpv, while secondary response was maximal around 80 dpv. The same sera tested by PH showed the highest titres for primary response on day 50 pv and secondary response was maximal on day 40 pv. A criterion for the evaluation of vaccination efficiency in the murine model is proposed based on the methods employed in the determination of antibody level.

Comparación de distintos métodos para la medición de la respuesta inmune humoral de ratones vacunados con el virus de la fiebre aftosa. / [Comparison of various methods for the measurement of the humoral immune response in mice vaccinated with aphthous fever virus]

Kinetics of the humoral immune primary response and seven-day secondary response of adult CF1 mice to FMDV O1 Campos adjuvanted in aluminium hydroxide-saponin (AHS) or in oil emulsion (OE) were evaluated by means of ELISA and passive hemagglutination (PH). Analysis of the response to AHS vaccine showed that ELISA measured maximal titres of primary response at 23 days post-vaccination (dpv), and at day 17 of secondary response, while PH detected maximal titres for primary as well as secondary response around day 60 pv. Mice immunized with OE vaccine studied by ELISA presented a plateau of primary response around 40 dpv, while secondary response was maximal around 80 dpv. The same sera tested by PH showed the highest titres for primary response on day 50 pv and secondary response was maximal on day 40 pv. A criterion for the evaluation of vaccination efficiency in the murine model is proposed based on the methods employed in the determination of antibody level.

Comparación de distintos métodos para la medición de la respuesta inmune humoral de ratones vacunados con el virus de la fiebre aftosa. / [Comparison of various methods for the measurement of the humoral immune response in mice vaccinated with aphthous fever virus]

Kinetics of the humoral immune primary response and seven-day secondary response of adult CF1 mice to FMDV O1 Campos adjuvanted in aluminium hydroxide-saponin (AHS) or in oil emulsion (OE) were evaluated by means of ELISA and passive hemagglutination (PH). Analysis of the response to AHS vaccine showed that ELISA measured maximal titres of primary response at 23 days post-vaccination (dpv), and at day 17 of secondary response, while PH detected maximal titres for primary as well as secondary response around day 60 pv. Mice immunized with OE vaccine studied by ELISA presented a plateau of primary response around 40 dpv, while secondary response was maximal around 80 dpv. The same sera tested by PH showed the highest titres for primary response on day 50 pv and secondary response was maximal on day 40 pv. A criterion for the evaluation of vaccination efficiency in the murine model is proposed based on the methods employed in the determination of antibody level.

Comparación de distintos métodos para la medición de la respuesta inmune humoral de ratones vacunados con el virus de la fiebre aftosa / [Comparison of various methods for the measurement of the humoral immune response in mice vaccinated with aphthous fever virus]

Kinetics of the humoral immune primary response and seven-day secondary response of adult CF1 mice to FMDV O1 Campos adjuvanted in aluminium hydroxide-saponin (AHS) or in oil emulsion (OE) were evaluated by means of ELISA and passive hemagglutination (PH). Analysis of the response to AHS vaccine showed that ELISA measured maximal titres of primary response at 23 days post-vaccination (dpv), and at day 17 of secondary response, while PH detected maximal titres for primary as well as secondary response around day 60 pv. Mice immunized with OE vaccine studied by ELISA presented a plateau of primary response around 40 dpv, while secondary response was maximal around 80 dpv. The same sera tested by PH showed the highest titres for primary response on day 50 pv and secondary response was maximal on day 40 pv. A criterion for the evaluation of vaccination efficiency in the murine model is proposed based on the methods employed in the determination of antibody level.

Comparación de distintos métodos para la medición de la respuesta inmune humoral de ratones vacunados con el virus de la fiebre aftosa / [Comparison of various methods for the measurement of the humoral immune response in mice vaccinated with aphthous fever virus]

Kinetics of the humoral immune primary response and seven-day secondary response of adult CF1 mice to FMDV O1 Campos adjuvanted in aluminium hydroxide-saponin (AHS) or in oil emulsion (OE) were evaluated by means of ELISA and passive hemagglutination (PH). Analysis of the response to AHS vaccine showed that ELISA measured maximal titres of primary response at 23 days post-vaccination (dpv), and at day 17 of secondary response, while PH detected maximal titres for primary as well as secondary response around day 60 pv. Mice immunized with OE vaccine studied by ELISA presented a plateau of primary response around 40 dpv, while secondary response was maximal around 80 dpv. The same sera tested by PH showed the highest titres for primary response on day 50 pv and secondary response was maximal on day 40 pv. A criterion for the evaluation of vaccination efficiency in the murine model is proposed based on the methods employed in the determination of antibody level.

Immunomodulatory activity of plasmatic substances.

In order to study circulating substances which could be involved in uremic immunodeficiency, the activity of plasma and plasmatic fractions of different molecular weight MW (A and B) from 12 patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) and 12 normal subjects (N) was assayed in vitro on PHA stimulated normal lymphocyte cultures. Plasma from CRF patients inhibited lymphoproliferation compared to normal plasma activity (mean +/- SD: 9,990 +/- 3,980 cpm vs. 22,163 +/- 3,054 cpm; p < 0.001). Nevertheless, the corresponding plasmatic fractions failed to induce similar effects. Both normal fractions showed inhibitory effects on proliferation while most of the CRF fractions allowed greater cellular proliferation than the former. The dose-response curves showed that all the normal fractions contained inhibitor(s) whose effect decreased with increasing dilution. Most of the B normal fractions also produced stimulatory effects when they were diluted between 1:5 and 1:25. Variable dose-response curves were obtained in the presence of CRF fractions. However, the lack of inhibitory activity in 9 of 12 patients and the stimulatory effects produced by several A-CRF fractions suggest qualitative differences between CRF and normal fractions. Present findings demonstrate inhibitory and stimulatory activities in the normal fractions which might be due to immunomodulator substances. Disorders in this immunomodulator system could be responsible for the immunodeficiency described in CRF patients.