Succinate mediates inflammation-induced adrenocortical dysfunction.

The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is activated in response to inflammation leading to increased production of anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids by the adrenal cortex, thereby representing an endogenous feedback loop. However, severe inflammation reduces the responsiveness of the adrenal gland to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), although the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we show by transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic analyses that LPS-induced systemic inflammation triggers profound metabolic changes in steroidogenic adrenocortical cells, including downregulation of the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, in mice. Inflammation disrupts the TCA cycle at the level of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), leading to succinate accumulation and disturbed steroidogenesis. Mechanistically, IL-1ß reduces SDHB expression through upregulation of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and methylation of the SDHB promoter. Consequently, increased succinate levels impair oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis and enhance ROS production, leading to reduced steroidogenesis. Together, we demonstrate that the IL-1ß-DNMT1-SDHB-succinate axis disrupts steroidogenesis. Our findings not only provide a mechanistic explanation for adrenal dysfunction in severe inflammation, but also offer a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Fatty acid desaturase 2 determines the lipidomic landscape and steroidogenic function of the adrenal gland.

Corticosteroids regulate vital processes, including stress responses, systemic metabolism, and blood pressure. Here, we show that corticosteroid synthesis is related to the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of mitochondrial phospholipids in adrenocortical cells. Inhibition of the rate-limiting enzyme of PUFA synthesis, fatty acid desaturase 2 (FADS2), leads to perturbations in the mitochondrial lipidome and diminishes steroidogenesis. Consistently, the adrenocortical mitochondria of Fads2-/- mice fed a diet with low PUFA concentration are structurally impaired and corticoid levels are decreased. On the contrary, FADS2 expression is elevated in the adrenal cortex of obese mice, and plasma corticosterone is increased, which can be counteracted by dietary supplementation with the FADS2 inhibitor SC-26192 or icosapent ethyl, an eicosapentaenoic acid ethyl ester. In humans, FADS2 expression is elevated in aldosterone-producing adenomas compared to non-active adenomas or nontumorous adrenocortical tissue and correlates with expression of steroidogenic genes. Our data demonstrate that FADS2-mediated PUFA synthesis determines adrenocortical steroidogenesis in health and disease.

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry based quantification of arginine metabolites including polyamines in different sample matrices.

The conditionally essential amino acid arginine and its metabolic products play an important role in different biological processes, such as metabolic regulation of the immune response, including macrophage activation and polarization and regulation of T cell function. Furthermore, the polyamine spermidine has a role in aging and age-related diseases. Additionally, altered polyamine metabolism may be associated with neurodegenerative diseases, while polyamine levels may present useful biomarkers associated with severity of Parkinson's disease or with progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. In the present study, a simple, derivatization-free hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography based tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method is described, that allows the accurate quantification of arginine and related amine, polyamine and acetylated polyamine metabolites in different experimental sample matrices, such as cell lysates, cell culture supernatants and tissues. Ten arginine metabolites, including citrulline, agmatine, ornithine, putrescine, spermidine, spermine, N1-acetylspermidine, N1-acetylspermine, N1,N12-diacetylspermine and arginine in conjunction with the metabolic cofactors S-adenosylhomocysteine and S-adenosylmethionine are simultaneously analyzed within a total LC-MS/MS run time of 9.5 min. The assay is suitable to quantify concentration ranges over multiple orders of magnitude for all metabolites with averaged accuracies observed at 103.2% ± 6.8%, 99.0% ± 4.2% and 100.4% ± 4.3% in cell lysates, cell culture supernatant and tissue extracts, respectively. Inter-day coefficients of variation ranged from 5.9 to 14.8% in cell lysates, 6.7 to 14.6% in cell culture supernatants and 5.3 to 12.0% in tissue extracts. The method was successfully applied to cell culture systems of different origin as well as different murine tissues and organs. The herein described LC-MS/MS method provides a simple tool for a fast and simultaneous analysis of arginine metabolites, including polyamines and their respective metabolic cofactors. Assay performance characteristics demonstrate suitability for applications in different experimental and preclinical settings.

Range of SHH signaling in adrenal gland is limited by membrane contact to cells with primary cilia.

The signaling protein Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) is crucial for the development and function of many vertebrate tissues. It remains largely unclear, however, what defines the range and specificity of pathway activation. The adrenal gland represents a useful model to address this question, where the SHH pathway is activated in a very specific subset of cells lying near the SHH-producing cells, even though there is an abundance of lipoproteins that would allow SHH to travel and signal long-range. We determine that, whereas adrenal cells can secrete SHH on lipoproteins, this form of SHH is inactive due to the presence of cosecreted inhibitors, potentially explaining the absence of long-range signaling. Instead, we find that SHH-producing cells signal at short range via membrane-bound SHH, only to receiving cells with primary cilia. Finally, our data from NCI-H295R adrenocortical carcinoma cells suggest that adrenocortical tumors may evade these regulatory control mechanisms by acquiring the ability to activate SHH target genes in response to TGF-ß.