Multicenter Population Pharmacokinetics of Fentanyl in Neonatal Surgical Patients Using Dried Blood Spot Specimen Collection Demonstrates Maturation of Elimination Clearance.

BACKGROUND: Fentanyl is widely used for analgesia and sedation in neonates, but pharmacokinetic (PK) analysis in this population has been limited by the relatively large sample volumes required for plasma-based assays. METHODS: In this multicenter observational study of fentanyl kinetics in neonates up to 42 weeks of postmenstrual age (PMA) who received fentanyl boluses and continuous infusions, dried blood spots were used for small-volume sampling. A population PK analysis was used to describe fentanyl disposition in term and preterm neonates. Covariates for the model parameters, including body weight, PMA, birth status (preterm or term), and presence of congenital cardiac disease, were assessed in a stepwise manner. RESULTS: Clearance was estimated to be greater than adult clearance of fentanyl and varied with weight. Covariate selection did not yield a significant relationship for age as a continuous or dichotomous variable (term or preterm, the latter defined as birth with PMA of <37 weeks) and clearance. CONCLUSIONS: A supra-allometric effect on clearance was determined during covariate analyses (exponential scaling factor for body weight >0.75), as has been described in population PK models that account for maturation of intrinsic clearance (here, predominantly hepatic microsomal activity) in addition to scaling for weight, both of which impact clearance in this age group.

Randomized Population Pharmacokinetic Analysis and Safety of Intravenous Acetaminophen for Acute Postoperative Pain in Neonates and Infants.

Intravenous administration of acetaminophen is an alternative to the oral and rectal routes, which may be contraindicated in particular clinical settings. This randomized, placebo-controlled study of intravenous acetaminophen (Ofirmev, Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals, Bedminster, New Jersey) in neonate and infant patients with acute postoperative pain assessed pharmacokinetics (PK) and safety, in addition to efficacy and pharmacodynamics of repeated doses administered over 24 hours. Neonate and infant patients (<2 years of age) who were undergoing surgery or had experienced a traumatic injury and were expected to need pain management for at least 24 hours were enrolled. Subjects were randomly assigned to receive intravenous acetaminophen low dose, intravenous acetaminophen high dose, or placebo. A population PK model of intravenous acetaminophen was updated by combining 581 samples from the current study of 158 neonate and infant subjects with results from a previously developed model. The individual predicted-versus-observed concentrations plots showed that the structural PK model fit the blood and plasma acetaminophen concentration-versus-time profiles in the active and placebo groups. Terminal elimination half-life was prolonged in neonates and younger infants and in intermediate and older infants similar to values in adults. When compared with placebo, total rescue opioid consumption was similar and significantly fewer intravenous acetaminophen patients prematurely discontinued because of treatment-emergent adverse events (P < .01). For intravenous acetaminophen, neonates receiving 12.5 mg/kg every 6 hours had PK profiles similar to younger, intermediate, and older infants, adolescents, and adults weighing <50 kg receiving 15 mg/kg every 6 hours and adults ≥ 50 kg receiving 1000 mg every 6 hours.

Assessment of Pain in the Newborn: An Update.

Preterm and term neonate pain assessment in neonatal intensive care units is vitally important because of the prevalence of procedural and postoperative pain. Of the 40 plus tools available, a few should be chosen for different populations and contexts (2 have been validated in premature infants). Preterm neonates do not display pain behaviors and physiologic indicators as reliably and specifically as full-term infants, and are vulnerable to long-term sequelae of painful experiences. Brain-oriented approaches may become available in the future; meanwhile, neonatal pain assessment tools must be taught, implemented, and their use optimized for consistent, reproducible, safe, and effective treatment.

The Society for Pediatric Anesthesia recommendations for the use of opioids in children during the perioperative period.

Opioids have long held a prominent role in the management of perioperative pain in adults and children. Published reports concerning the appropriate, and inappropriate, use of these medications in pediatric patients have appeared in various publications over the last 50 years. For this document, the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia appointed a taskforce to evaluate the available literature and formulate recommendations with respect to the most salient aspects of perioperative opioid administration in children. The recommendations are graded based on the strength of the available evidence, with consensus of the experts applied for those issues where evidence is not available. The goal of the recommendations was to address the most important issues concerning opioid administration to children after surgery, including appropriate assessment of pain, monitoring of patients on opioid therapy, opioid dosing considerations, side effects of opioid treatment, strategies for opioid delivery, and assessment of analgesic efficacy. Regular updates are planned with a re-release of guidelines every 2 years.

A Review of Clinical Poster Presentations at the Sixth Biennial Pediatric Anesthesia Neurodevelopment Assessment (PANDA) Symposium.

Clinical researchers studying the long-term neurocognitive effects of anesthetic and sedative agents on children continue to struggle with identifying a phenotype for anesthetic neurotoxicity, the window of vulnerability, and the toxicity threshold in terms of concentration and duration. The Sixth Biennial Pediatric Anesthesia Neurodevelopment Assessment (PANDA) symposium at Columbia University included a moderated poster presentation session where 4 investigators presented their latest contributions to the landscape of clinical anesthetic neurotoxicity research. A lack of standardization in the design of clinical studies in terms of age at exposure, duration and type of exposure, and outcome measures assessed were highlighted by all the investigators. Suggestions for the future direction of clinical trials included the implementation of more consistent study parameters and the employment of standardized neurocognitive testing and imaging before and after exposure to general anesthesia. Presentations covered a broad range of topics including the valid translation of preclinical studies to human subjects, the quantification of real-world exposures to anesthetic and sedative medications, and possible alternatives to these exposures.

A Summary of Preclinical Poster Presentations at the Sixth Biennial Pediatric Anesthesia Neurodevelopment Assessment (PANDA) Symposium.

The potential for long-term neurotoxic effects of anesthetics on the developing human brain has led to intensified research in this area. To date, the human evidence has been inconclusive, but a large body of animal evidence continues to demonstrate cause for concern. On April 14 and 15, 2018 the sixth biennial Pediatric Anesthesia and Neurodevelopmental Assessment (PANDA) study symposium was held at Morgan Stanley Children's Hospital of New York. This symposium brought together clinicians and researchers and served as a platform to review preclinical and clinical data related to anesthesia and neurotoxicity in developing brains. The program participants included many active investigators in the field of anesthesia neurotoxicity as well as stakeholders from different backgrounds with the common interest of potential anesthetic neurotoxicity in children. The moderated poster session included presentations of preclinical animal research studies. These studies focused on defining the anesthetic-induced neurotoxicity phenotype, understanding the mechanism of injury and discovering potential inhibitors of neurotoxic effects.

Perioperative Management and In-Hospital Outcomes After Minimally Invasive Repair of Pectus Excavatum: A Multicenter Registry Report From the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia Improvement Network.

BACKGROUND: There are few comparative data on the analgesic options used to manage patients undergoing minimally invasive repair of pectus excavatum (MIRPE). The Society for Pediatric Anesthesia Improvement Network was established to investigate outcomes for procedures where there is significant management variability. For our first study, we established a multicenter observational database to characterize the analgesic strategies used to manage pediatric patients undergoing MIRPE. Outcome data from the participating centers were used to assess the association between analgesic strategy and pain outcomes. METHODS: Fourteen institutions enrolled patients from June 2014 through August 2015. Network members agreed to an observational methodology where each institution managed patients based on their institutional standards and protocols. There was no requirement to standardize care. Patients were categorized based on analgesic strategy: epidural catheter (EC), paravertebral catheter (PVC), wound catheter (WC), no regional (NR) analgesia, and intrathecal morphine techniques. Primary outcomes, pain score and opioid consumption by postoperative day (POD), for each technique were compared while adjusting for confounders using multivariable modeling that included 5 covariates: age, sex, number of bars, Haller index, and use of preoperative pain medication. Pain scores were analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance with Bonferroni correction. Opioid consumption was analyzed using a multivariable quantile regression. RESULTS: Data were collected on 348 patients and categorized based on primary analgesic strategy: EC (122), PVC (57), WC (41), NR (120), and intrathecal morphine (8). Compared to EC, daily median pain scores were higher in patients managed with PVC (POD 0), WC (POD 0, 1, 2, 3), and NR (POD 0, 1, 2), respectively (P < .001-.024 depending on group). Daily opioid requirements were higher in patients managed with PVC (POD 0, 1), WC (POD 0, 1, 2), and NR (POD 0, 1, 2) when compared to patients managed with EC (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate variation in pain management strategies for patients undergoing MIRPE within our network. The results indicate that most patients have mild-to-moderate pain postoperatively regardless of analgesic management. Patients managed with EC had lower pain scores and opioid consumption in the early recovery period compared to other treatment strategies.

Use of Intravenous Acetaminophen in Children for Analgesia After Spinal Fusion Surgery: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

OBJECTIVES: Opioid pharmacotherapy is the cornerstone of postoperative analgesia. Despite its effectiveness, it has a variety of potential adverse effects. Therefore, a multimodal approach with non-opioid analgesics would be optimal. The aim of this study was to determine if intravenous (IV) acetaminophen would reduce opioid requirements and improve clinical outcomes in children after surgery. METHODS: A single-center, randomized, double-blind study was conducted in 57 children (10-18 years old) undergoing posterior spine fusion surgery between July 2011 to May 2014. All subjects received either acetaminophen or placebo at the end of surgery, followed by repeated doses every 6 hours for a total of 8 doses. RESULTS: In the first 24 postoperative hours, the average opioid consumption was lower for the active group compared with the placebo group (p = 0.02). The total unadjusted time to patient controlled analgesia (PCA) discontinuation was also longer in the placebo group than the active group (90 hours vs. 73 hours, p = 0.02); however, this was not statistically significant after normalizing for body weight. Additionally, time to first solid intake was longer without the use of acetaminophen (69 hours vs. 49 hours, p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Postoperative use of IV acetaminophen was associated with earlier time to diet advancement and discontinuation of IV analgesics and may result in lower opioid consumption.

Clinical trial designs and models for analgesic medications for acute pain in neonates, infants, toddlers, children, and adolescents: ACTTION recommendations.

Clinical trials to test the safety and efficacy of analgesics across all pediatric age cohorts are needed to avoid inappropriate extrapolation of adult data to children. However, the selection of acute pain models and trial design attributes to maximize assay sensitivity, by pediatric age cohort, remains problematic. Acute pain models used for drug treatment trials in adults are not directly applicable to the pediatric age cohorts-neonates, infants, toddlers, children, and adolescents. Developmental maturation of metabolic enzymes in infants and children must be taken into consideration when designing trials to test analgesic treatments for acute pain. Assessment tools based on the levels of cognitive maturation and behavioral repertoire must be selected as outcome measures. Models and designs of clinical trials of analgesic medications used in the treatment of acute pain in neonates, infants, toddlers, children, and adolescents were reviewed and discussed at an Analgesic, Anesthetic, and Addiction Clinical Trial Translations, Innovations, Opportunities, and Networks (ACTTION) Pediatric Pain Research Consortium consensus meeting. Based on extensive reviews and continuing discussions, the authors recommend a number of acute pain clinical trial models and design attributes that have the potential to improve the study of analgesic medications in pediatric populations. Recommendations are also provided regarding additional research needed to support the use of other acute pain models across pediatric age cohorts.

Comparative Safety of Morphine Delivered via Intravenous Route vs. Patient-Controlled Analgesia Device for Pediatric Inpatients.

CONTEXT: Although patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) is an effective pain control modality, there is a lack of large studies on PCA safety in pediatric patients. OBJECTIVES: This study compared the delivery of morphine either via intravenous route (morphine IV) or via PCA device (morphine PCA) on risk of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and mechanical ventilation (MV) using a large administrative database. METHODS: We assembled a retrospective cohort of pediatric inpatients between five and 21 years old in 42 children's hospitals between 2007 and 2011 from the Pediatric Health Information System database. After propensity score matching, we created matched cohorts of morphine PCA and morphine IV patients, in both surgical and nonsurgical samples, who were similar on demographic, clinical, and hospital-level factors. We examined if PCA administration was associated with greater likelihood of CPR or MV up to two days after drug administration. RESULTS: Surgical and nonsurgical patients administered morphine PCA generally had lower odds of having MV on the baseline day and up to two days after PCA exposure, although these estimates were not statistically significant. Similarly, PCA exposure was associated with about 20%-44% lower odds of same day CPR in both surgical and nonsurgical patients, with a slightly greater reduction in the odds of CPR in the surgical patients. CONCLUSION: In this large pediatric inpatient population, morphine administered via PCA device for surgical and nonsurgical pain was not associated with an increased risk of receiving CPR or MV, and was associated with slightly better safety outcomes than intravenous morphine.

Optimal Timing of Surgical Procedures in Pediatric Patients.

The Pediatric Anesthesia Neuro Development Assessment (PANDA) team at the Anesthesiology Department at Columbia University Medical Center held its fifth biennial symposium to discuss issues regarding potential neurotoxicity of anesthetic agents in pediatric patients. Overall optimal surgical timing as well as a "critical window" for surgery on a specialty specific basis are areas of focus for the American Academy of Pediatrics Surgical Advisory Panel. An ad hoc panel of pediatric surgical experts representing general surgery, urology, neurosurgery, and ophthalmology was assembled for this meeting and provided a dialogue focused on the benefits of early intervention versus potential anesthetic risk, addressing parental concerns, and the need for continued interdisciplinary collaboration in this area.

Association Between a Single General Anesthesia Exposure Before Age 36 Months and Neurocognitive Outcomes in Later Childhood.

IMPORTANCE: Exposure of young animals to commonly used anesthetics causes neurotoxicity including impaired neurocognitive function and abnormal behavior. The potential neurocognitive and behavioral effects of anesthesia exposure in young children are thus important to understand. OBJECTIVE: To examine if a single anesthesia exposure in otherwise healthy young children was associated with impaired neurocognitive development and abnormal behavior in later childhood. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Sibling-matched cohort study conducted between May 2009 and April 2015 at 4 university-based US pediatric tertiary care hospitals. The study cohort included sibling pairs within 36 months in age and currently 8 to 15 years old. The exposed siblings were healthy at surgery/anesthesia. Neurocognitive and behavior outcomes were prospectively assessed with retrospectively documented anesthesia exposure data. EXPOSURES: A single exposure to general anesthesia during inguinal hernia surgery in the exposed sibling and no anesthesia exposure in the unexposed sibling, before age 36 months. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The primary outcome was global cognitive function (IQ). Secondary outcomes included domain-specific neurocognitive functions and behavior. A detailed neuropsychological battery assessed IQ and domain-specific neurocognitive functions. Parents completed validated, standardized reports of behavior. RESULTS: Among the 105 sibling pairs, the exposed siblings (mean age, 17.3 months at surgery/anesthesia; 9.5% female) and the unexposed siblings (44% female) had IQ testing at mean ages of 10.6 and 10.9 years, respectively. All exposed children received inhaled anesthetic agents, and anesthesia duration ranged from 20 to 240 minutes, with a median duration of 80 minutes. Mean IQ scores between exposed siblings (scores: full scale = 111; performance = 108; verbal = 111) and unexposed siblings (scores: full scale = 111; performance = 107; verbal = 111) were not statistically significantly different. Differences in mean IQ scores between sibling pairs were: full scale = -0.2 (95% CI, -2.6 to 2.9); performance = 0.5 (95% CI, -2.7 to 3.7); and verbal = -0.5 (95% CI, -3.2 to 2.2). No statistically significant differences in mean scores were found between sibling pairs in memory/learning, motor/processing speed, visuospatial function, attention, executive function, language, or behavior. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Among healthy children with a single anesthesia exposure before age 36 months, compared with healthy siblings with no anesthesia exposure, there were no statistically significant differences in IQ scores in later childhood. Further study of repeated exposure, prolonged exposure, and vulnerable subgroups is needed.

Rapid Recovery Pathway After Spinal Fusion for Idiopathic Scoliosis.

BACKGROUND: Posterior spinal fusion (PSF) for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) is associated with significant pain and prolonged hospitalization. There is evidence that early mobilization and multimodal analgesia can accelerate functional recovery and reduced length of stay (LOS). Using these principles, we implemented a quality improvement initiative to enable earlier functional recovery in our AIS-PSF population. METHODS: We designed and implemented a standardized rapid recovery pathway (RRP) with evidence-based management recommendations for children aged 10 to 21 years undergoing PSF for AIS. Our primary outcome, functional recovery, was assessed using statistical process control charts for LOS and average daily pain scores. Our process measures were medication adherence and order set utilization. The balancing measure was 30-day readmission rate. RESULTS: We included 322 patients from January 1, 2011 to June 30, 2015 with 134 (42%) serving as historical controls, 104 (32%) representing our transition population, and 84 (26%) serving as our RRP population. Baseline average LOS was 5.7 days and decreased to 4 days after RRP implementation. Average daily pain scores remained stable with improvement on postoperative day 0 (3.8 vs 4.9 days) and 1 (3.8 vs 5 days) after RRP implementation. In the second quarter of 2015, gabapentin (91%) and ketorolac (95%) use became routine and order set utilization was 100%. Readmission rates did not increase as a result of this pathway. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of a standardized RRP with multimodal pain management and early mobilization strategies resulted in reduced LOS without an increase in reported pain scores or readmissions.

Neurotoxicity, general anesthesia in young children, and a survey of current pediatric anesthesia practice at US teaching institutions.

BACKGROUND: Recent articles in both scholarly journals and the lay press about the topic of anesthetic related neurotoxicity have increased the awareness and discussion of this topic with parents and other pediatric medical specialties (i.e., surgeons, radiologists, and pediatricians). AIM: The purpose of the present study was to survey how a subset of pediatric anesthesia departments in the US have responded to the issue of anesthetic related neurotoxicity in terms of clinical practice, training and communication with other medical specialties, and the frequency and timing of discussions with families. METHODS: A survey consisting of 22 questions was sent to PALC (Pediatric Anesthesia Leadership Council) & PAPDA (Pediatric Anesthesia Program Directors Association) via SurveyMonkey. The survey was divided into sections on Anesthesia Faculty/Trainees, Parents and Non-Anesthesia Providers. Responses to the survey were solicited via email to PALC and PAPDA, and then followed up with reminders to individual emails using the mailing lists of both organizations. RESULTS: The results of this survey demonstrate that pediatric anesthesia programs around the US do not have a consistent approach in managing the topic of anesthesia-related neurotoxicity with pediatric anesthesiologists, anesthesiology residents, pediatric anesthesiology fellows and their non-anesthesia medical and surgical colleagues, as well as the discussion of this topic with parents. CONCLUSION: A significant need exists to provide information to other pediatric professionals and parents. A consistent message from all providers that includes what is known, and indeed more importantly what is not known may be a useful approach.

A retrospective comparison of ropivacaine and 2-chloroprocaine continuous thoracic epidural analgesia for management of postthoracotomy pain in infants.

INTRODUCTION: Continuous thoracic epidural analgesia is useful in the management of infants following thoracotomy. Concerns about drug accumulation and toxicity limit the amount of amide local anesthetics that can be delivered. Continuous epidural infusions of the ester local anesthetic chloroprocaine result in little drug accumulation allowing for higher infusion rates. We retrospectively compared patients managed with 1.5% 2- chloroprocaine or 0.1% ropivacaine epidural infusions to determine if the increased infusion rate resulted in similar or improved analgesia. METHODS: This retrospective cohort comparison consisted of full term infants 6 months or younger who underwent thoracotomy for congenital lung lesion resection. Patients were included if they were managed with either a 1.5% 2-chloroprocaine (Group C) (n = 26) or 0.1% ropivacaine (Group R) (n = 28) infusion administered through a caudally placed thoracic epidural catheter. The primary outcome was morphine administration at 0-24 h. RESULTS: Patients were similar in age, weight, length of stay, epidural location and duration. There was weak evidence for a difference in morphine use in the first 24 h in Group C compared to Group R (P = 0.08) but no difference 24-48 h. Group C was more commonly managed with ketorolac at 0-24 h (P = 0.03) and 24-48 h (P =< 0.01). DISCUSSION: The use of 2-chloroprocaine for continuous epidural infusion in infants following thoracotomy was not inferior to ropivacaine and there was weak evidence for a reduction in opioid consumption in the first 24 h postoperatively. However, the 2-chloroprocaine group was more likely to receive ketorolac.

Pain management following major intracranial surgery in pediatric patients: a prospective cohort study in three academic children's hospitals.

INTRODUCTION: Pain management following major intracranial surgery is often limited by a presumed lack of need and a concern that opioids will adversely affect postoperative outcome and interfere with the neurologic examination. Nevertheless, evidence in adults is accumulating that these patients suffer moderate to severe pain, and this pain is often under-treated. The purpose of this prospective, clinical observational cohort study was to assess the incidence of pain, prescribed analgesics, methods of analgesic delivery, and patient/parent satisfaction in pediatric patients undergoing cranial surgery at three major university children's hospitals. METHODS: After obtaining IRB and parental consent (and when applicable, patient assent), children who underwent cranial surgery for cancer, epilepsy, vascular malformations, and craniofacial reconstruction were studied. Neither intraoperative anesthetic management nor postoperative pain management was standardized, but were based on institutional routine. Patients were evaluated daily by a study investigator and by chart review for pain scores using age appropriate, validated tools (FLACC, Faces Pain Scale-Revised, Wong-Baker Faces Scale or Self-Report on a 0-10 scale), for patient/parent satisfaction using a subset of the NRC Picker satisfaction tool and in adolescents a modified QoR-40, and for the frequency, mode of administration, and type of analgesic provided. Finally, the incidence of opioid-induced side effects, specifically nausea, vomiting, pruritus, altered level of consciousness, and need for emergency diagnostic radiologic studies for altered neurologic examination were recorded. Data are provided as mean ± SD. RESULTS: Two hundred children (98:102 M:F), averaging 7.8 ± 5.8 years old (range 2 months-18.5 years) and 32.2 ± 23.0 kg (range 4.5-111.6 kg) undergoing craniectomy (51), craniotomy (96), and craniofacial reconstruction (53) were studied. Despite considerable variation in mode and route of analgesic administration, there were no differences in average pain score, length of hospital stay, or parental satisfaction with care. Interestingly, opioid-induced side effects were not related to total daily opioid consumption, site of surgery, or method of opioid delivery. The most common side effect was vomiting. No patient developed respiratory depression or altered mental status secondary to analgesic therapy. Regardless of age or procedure, once eating, most patients were treated with oral oxycodone and/or acetaminophen. CONCLUSIONS: Despite considerable variation in modality and route of analgesic administration, there were no differences in average pain score, length of stay, or parental satisfaction with care. Pain scores were low, side effects were minimal, and parental satisfaction was high, providing equipoise for future blinded prospective randomized trials in this patient population.

Variation of opioid use in pediatric inpatients across hospitals in the U.S.

CONTEXT: Appropriate use of opioids is essential to manage moderate-to-severe pain in children safely and effectively, yet published guidance regarding opioid treatment for pediatric patients is limited, potentially resulting in excessive variation in opioid use in pediatric patients across hospitals in the U.S. OBJECTIVES: The aim was to evaluate hospital variation in opioid use in pediatric inpatients. METHODS: Using data from the Pediatric Health Information System and the Premier Perspective Database regarding all pediatric inpatients in 626 hospitals, we examined hospital variation in opioid use and the length of opioid use, adjusting for patient demographic and clinical characteristics and for hospital type (children's vs. general) and hospital patient volume, using multilevel generalized linear regression modeling. RESULTS: Overall, 41.2% of all pediatric hospitalizations were exposed to opioids. Among the exposed patients, the mean length of exposure was 4.6 days. Exposure proportion and exposure length varied substantially across hospitals, even after accounting for patient demographic and clinical characteristics, hospital type and hospital patient volume, especially among terminal hospitalizations. For patients discharged alive vs. died, the adjusted exposure percentage for each hospital ranged from 0.7% to 99.1% (interquartile range [IQR]: 35.3%-59.9%) vs. 0.1% to 100.0% (IQR: 29.2%-66.2%), respectively, and the adjusted exposure length ranged from 1.0 to 8.4 days (IQR: 2.2-2.7 days) vs. 0.9 to 35.2 days (IQR: 4.0-7.4 days). CONCLUSION: The substantial hospital-level variation in opioid use in pediatric inpatients suggests room for improvement in clinical practice.

Ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve blocks in children and adolescents: a longitudinal 8-year single center study.

BACKGROUND: Although the role of regional anesthesia in pediatric patients has been increasing over the last few years, there are only a few small case series that describe the use of ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) in this patient population. In this report, we describe our experience with the use of ambulatory CPNBs in 1285 children. METHODS: Data were collected for consecutive children who had a CPNB placed between January 2005 and December 2011 at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia from the departmental regional anesthesia database. Data collected included demographics, the site of catheter placement and technique of nerve block, presence of sensory/motor blockade, use of perioperative opioids, and any complications related to CPNBs. RESULTS: Continuous infusions of local anesthetics were administered via the catheters in 1285 outpatients. The mean duration of the CPNB was 50.7 ± 14.4 hours (mean ± SD). Among patients discharged home with the CPNBs, 969 (75.4%) of the patients required either no supplemental opioids or oral opioids only on an "as needed" basis in the postoperative period (confidence interval, 73.0%-77.8%). Two patients were readmitted for IV pain management after they were discharged home with the CPNB catheters. No neurological deficit related to the CPNBs was identified in any of the patients at their 6-month follow-up with the orthopedic surgeon (confidence interval, 0%-0.29%). CONCLUSION: This audit of 1285 children shows ambulatory CPNBs can provide postoperative analgesia and may reduce the need for inpatient parenteral opioid therapy.

Pain care for patients with epidermolysis bullosa: best care practice guidelines.

BACKGROUND: Inherited epidermolysis bullosa (EB) comprises a group of rare disorders that have multi-system effects and patients present with a number of both acute and chronic pain care needs. Effects on quality of life are substantial. Pain and itching are burdensome daily problems. Experience with, and knowledge of, the best pain and itch care for these patients is minimal. Evidence-based best care practice guidelines are needed to establish a base of knowledge and practice for practitioners of many disciplines to improve the quality of life for both adult and pediatric patients with EB. METHODS: The process was begun at the request of Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa Research Association International (DEBRA International), an organization dedicated to improvement of care, research and dissemination of knowledge for EB patients worldwide. An international panel of experts in pain and palliative care who have extensive experience caring for patients with EB was assembled. Literature was reviewed and systematically evaluated. For areas of care without direct evidence, clinically relevant literature was assessed, and rounds of consensus building were conducted. The process involved a face-to-face consensus meeting that involved a family representative and methodologist, as well as the panel of clinical experts. During development, EB family input was obtained and the document was reviewed by a wide variety of experts representing several disciplines related to the care of patients with EB. RESULTS: The first evidence-based care guidelines for the care of pain in EB were produced. The guidelines are clinically relevant for care of patients of all subtypes and ages, and apply to practitioners of all disciplines involved in the care of patients with EB. When the evidence suggests that the diagnosis or treatment of painful conditions differs between adults and children, it will be so noted. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence-based care guidelines are a means of standardizing optimal care for EB patients, whose disease is often times horrific in its effects on quality of life, and whose care is resource-intensive and difficult. The guideline development process also highlighted areas for research in order to improve further the evidence base for future care.