Adaptation of the Tumor Antigen Presentation Machinery to Ionizing Radiation.

Ionizing radiation (IR) can reprogram proteasome structure and function in cells and tissues. In this article, we show that IR can promote immunoproteasome synthesis with important implications for Ag processing and presentation and tumor immunity. Irradiation of a murine fibrosarcoma (FSA) induced dose-dependent de novo biosynthesis of the immunoproteasome subunits LMP7, LMP2, and Mecl-1, in concert with other changes in the Ag-presentation machinery (APM) essential for CD8+ T cell-mediated immunity, including enhanced expression of MHC class I (MHC-I), ß2-microglobulin, transporters associated with Ag processing molecules, and their key transcriptional activator NOD-like receptor family CARD domain containing 5. In contrast, in another less immunogenic, murine fibrosarcoma (NFSA), LMP7 transcripts and expression of components of the immunoproteasome and the APM were muted after IR, which affected MHC-I expression and CD8+ T lymphocyte infiltration into NFSA tumors in vivo. Introduction of LMP7 into NFSA largely corrected these deficiencies, enhancing MHC-I expression and in vivo tumor immunogenicity. The immune adaptation in response to IR mirrored many aspects of the response to IFN-γ in coordinating the transcriptional MHC-I program, albeit with notable differences. Further investigations showed divergent upstream pathways in that, unlike IFN-γ, IR failed to activate STAT-1 in either FSA or NFSA cells while heavily relying on NF-κB activation. The IR-induced shift toward immunoproteasome production within a tumor indicates that proteasomal reprogramming is part of an integrated and dynamic tumor-host response that is specific to the stressor and the tumor and therefore is of clinical relevance for radiation oncology.

M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase rewires glucose metabolism during radiation therapy to promote an antioxidant response and glioblastoma radioresistance.

BACKGROUND: Resistance to existing therapies is a significant challenge in improving outcomes for glioblastoma (GBM) patients. Metabolic plasticity has emerged as an important contributor to therapy resistance, including radiation therapy (RT). Here, we investigated how GBM cells reprogram their glucose metabolism in response to RT to promote radiation resistance. METHODS: Effects of radiation on glucose metabolism of human GBM specimens were examined in vitro and in vivo with the use of metabolic and enzymatic assays, targeted metabolomics, and FDG-PET. Radiosensitization potential of interfering with M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2) activity was tested via gliomasphere formation assays and in vivo human GBM models. RESULTS: Here, we show that RT induces increased glucose utilization by GBM cells, and this is accompanied with translocation of GLUT3 transporters to the cell membrane. Irradiated GBM cells route glucose carbons through the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) to harness the antioxidant power of the PPP and support survival after radiation. This response is regulated in part by the PKM2. Activators of PKM2 can antagonize the radiation-induced rewiring of glucose metabolism and radiosensitize GBM cells in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: These findings open the possibility that interventions designed to target cancer-specific regulators of metabolic plasticity, such as PKM2, rather than specific metabolic pathways, have the potential to improve the radiotherapeutic outcomes in GBM patients.

Blood-Based Biomarkers in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Narrative Review With Implications for the Legal System.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an increasingly recognized diagnosis with significant, and often costly, associated consequences. Yet, despite their increased recognition, TBIs remain underdiagnosed. This issue is especially prominent in the context of mild TBI (mTBI), where there often exists little to no objective evidence of brain injury. In recent years, considerable effort has been made to better define and interpret known objective markers of TBI, as well as identify and explore new ones. An area of particular interest has focused on research related to blood-based biomarkers of TBI. Advancements in our understanding of TBI-related biomarkers can make it possible to characterize the severity of TBI with greater accuracy, improve our understanding of staging within both the injury process and the recovery process, and help us develop quantifiable metrics representative of reversal and recovery from a brain injury following trauma. Proteomic and non-proteomic blood-based biomarkers are being studied extensively and have shown promise for these purposes. Developments in this realm have significant implications not only for clinical care but also for legislation, as well as civil and criminal litigation. Despite their substantial potential, most of these biomarkers are not yet ready for use within the clinical setting, and therefore, are not appropriate for use within the legal or policy-making systems at this time. Given that existing standardization for the accurate and reliable use of TBI biomarkers is currently insufficient for use within either the clinical or legal realms, such data can be vulnerable to misuse and can even result in the abuse of the legal system for unwarranted gain. Courts will need to carefully evaluate the information presented in their role as gatekeepers of the admissibility of scientific evidence within the legal process. Ultimately, the development of biomarkers should lead to improved clinical care following TBI exposure, coherent and informed laws surrounding TBI, and more accurate and just results in litigation surrounding TBI-related sequelae.

Inhibitory and excitatory alcohol-seeking cues distinct roles in behavior, neurochemistry, and mesolimbic pathway in alcohol preferring (P) rats.

Cues associated with alcohol use can readily enhance self-reported cravings for alcohol, which increases the likelihood of reusing alcohol. Understanding the neuronal mechanisms involved in alcohol-seeking behavior is important for developing strategies to treat alcohol use disorder. In all experiments, adult female alcohol-preferring (P) rats were exposed to three conditioned odor cues; CS+ associated with EtOH self-administration, CS- associated with the absence of EtOH (extinction training), and a CS0, a neutral stimulus. The data indicated that presentation of an excitatory conditioned cue (CS+) can enhance EtOH- seeking while the CS- can inhibit EtOH-seeking under multiple test conditions. Presentation of the CS+ activates a subpopulation of dopamine neurons within the interfascicular nucleus of the posterior ventral tegmental area (posterior VTA) and basolateral amygdala (BLA). Pharmacological inactivation of the BLA with GABA agonists inhibits the ability of the CS+ to enhance EtOH-seeking but does not alter context-induced EtOH-seeking or the ability of the CS- to inhibit EtOH-seeking. Presentation of the conditioned odor cues in a non-drug-paired environment indicated that presentation of the CS+ increased dopamine levels in the BLA. In contrast, presentation of the CS- decreased both glutamate and dopamine levels in the BLA. Further analysis revealed that presentation of a CS+ EtOH-associated conditioned cue activates GABA interneurons but not glutamate projection neurons. Overall, the data indicate that excitatory and inhibitory conditioned cues can contrarily alter EtOH-seeking behaviors and that different neurocircuitries are mediating these distinct cues in critical brain regions. Pharmacotherapeutics for craving should inhibit the CS+ and enhance the CS- neurocircuits.

NRF2 Mediates Cellular Resistance to Transformation, Radiation, and Inflammation in Mice.

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) is recognized as a master transcription factor that regulates expression of numerous detoxifying and antioxidant cytoprotective genes. In fact, models of NRF2 deficiency indicate roles not only in redox regulation, but also in metabolism, inflammatory/autoimmune disease, cancer, and radioresistancy. Since ionizing radiation (IR) generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), it is not surprising it activates NRF2 pathways. However, unexpectedly, activation is often delayed for many days after the initial ROS burst. Here, we demonstrate that, as assayed by γ-H2AX staining, rapid DNA double strand break (DSB) formation by IR in primary mouse Nrf2-/- MEFs was not affected by loss of NRF2, and neither was DSB repair to any great extent. In spite of this, basal and IR-induced transformation was greatly enhanced, suggesting that NRF2 protects against late IR-induced genomic instability, at least in murine MEFs. Another possible IR- and NRF2-related event that could be altered is inflammation and NRF2 deficiency increased IR-induced NF-κB pro-inflammatory responses mostly late after exposure. The proclivity of NRF2 to restrain inflammation is also reflected in the reprogramming of tumor antigen-specific lymphocyte responses in mice where Nrf2 k.o. switches Th2 responses to Th1 polarity. Delayed NRF2 responses to IR may be critical for the immune transition from prooxidant inflammation to antioxidant healing as well as in driving cellular radioresistance and survival. Targeting NRF2 to reprogram immunity could be of considerable therapeutic benefit in radiation and immunotherapy.

Blood Biomarkers in Brain Injury Medicine.

Purpose of Review: This review seeks to explore blood-based biomarkers with the potential for clinical implementation. Recent Findings: Emerging non-proteomic biomarkers hold promise for more accurate diagnostic and prognostic capabilities, especially in the subacute to chronic phase of TBI recovery. Further, there is a growing understanding of the overlap between TBI-related and Dementia-related blood biomarkers. Summary: Given the significant heterogeneity inherent in the clinical diagnosis of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), there has been an exponential increase in TBI-related biomarker research over the past two decades. While TBI-related biomarker assessments include both cerebrospinal fluid analysis and advanced neuroimaging modalities, blood-based biomarkers hold the most promise to be non-invasive biomarkers widely available to Brain Injury Medicine clinicians in diverse practice settings. In this article, we review the most relevant blood biomarkers for the field of Brain Injury Medicine, including both proteomic and non-proteomic blood biomarkers, biomarkers of cerebral microvascular injury, and biomarkers that overlap between TBI and Dementia.

The involvement of mesolimbic dopamine system in cotinine self-administration in rats.

Cotinine is the major metabolite of nicotine and has recently been shown to be self-administered intravenously by rats. However, mechanisms underlying cotinine self-administration remained unknown. Mesolimbic dopamine system projecting from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to nucleus accumbens (NAC) is closely implicated in drug reinforcement, including nicotine. The objective of the current study was to determine potential involvement of mesolimbic dopamine system in cotinine self-administration. An intracranial self-administration experiment demonstrates that cotinine at 0.88 and 1.76 ng/100 nl/infusion was self-infused into the VTA by rats. Rats produced more infusions of cotinine than vehicle and responded more on active than inactive lever during acquisition, reduced responding when cotinine was replaced by vehicle, and resumed responding during re-exposure to cotinine. Microinjection of cotinine at 1.76 ng/100 nl/infusion into the VTA increased extracellular dopamine levels within the NAC. Subcutaneous injection of cotinine at 1 mg/kg also increased extracellular dopamine levels within the NAC. Administration of the D1-like receptor antagonist SCH 23390 attenuated intravenous cotinine self-administration. On the other hand, bupropion, a catecholamine uptake inhibitor, did not significantly alter intravenous cotinine self-administration. These results suggest that activation of mesolimbic dopamine system may represent one cellular mechanism underlying cotinine self-administration. This shared mechanism between cotinine and nicotine suggests that cotinine may play a role in nicotine reinforcement.

Blood and urinary cytokine balance and renal outcomes at cardiac surgery.

BACKGROUND: Increased perioperative pro-inflammatory biomarkers, renal hypoperfusion and ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) heighten cardiac surgery acute kidney injury (CS-AKI) risk. Increased urinary anti-inflammatory cytokines attenuate risk. We evaluated whether blood and urinary anti-inflammatory biomarkers, when expressed as ratios with biomarkers of inflammation, hypoperfusion and IRI are increased in CS-AKI patients. METHODS: Preoperative and 24-h postoperative blood and urinary pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, blood VEGF and H-FABP (hypoperfusion biomarkers), and MK, a biomarker for IRI, were measured in 401 cardiac surgery patients. Pre- and postoperative concentrations of biomarkers and selected ratios thereof, were compared between non-CS-AKI and CS-AKI patients. RESULTS: Compared with non-CS-AKI, blood pro-inflammatory (pre- and post-op TNFα, IP-10, IL-12p40, MIP-1α, NGAL; pre-op IL-6; post-op IL-8, MK) and anti-inflammatory (pre- and post-op sTNFsr1, sTNFsr2, IL-1RA) biomarkers together with urinary pro-inflammatory (pre- and post-op uIL-12p40; post-op uIP-10, uNGAL) and anti-inflammatory (pre- and post-op usTNFsr1, usTNFsr2, uIL-1RA) biomarkers, were significantly higher in CS-AKI patients. Urinary anti-inflammatory biomarkers, when expressed as ratios with biomarkers of inflammation (blood and urine), hypoperfusion (blood H-FABP and VEGF) and IRI (blood MK) were decreased in CS-AKI. In contrast, blood anti-inflammatory biomarkers expressed as similar ratios with blood biomarkers were increased in CS-AKI. CONCLUSIONS: The urinary anti-inflammatory response may protect against the injurious effects of perioperative inflammation, hypoperfusion and IRI. These finding may have clinical utility in bioprediction and earlier diagnosis of CS-AKI and informing future therapeutic strategies for CS-AKI patients.

Classes of Drugs that Mitigate Radiation Syndromes.

We previously reported several vignettes on types and classes of drugs able to mitigate acute and, in at least one case, late radiation syndromes in mice. Most of these had emerged from high throughput screening (HTS) of bioactive and chemical drug libraries using ionizing radiation-induced lymphocytic apoptosis as a readout. Here we report the full analysis of the HTS screen of libraries with 85,000 small molecule chemicals that identified 220 "hits." Most of these hits could be allocated by maximal common substructure analysis to one of 11 clusters each containing at least three active compounds. Further screening validated 23 compounds as being most active; 15 of these were cherry-picked based on drug availability and tested for their ability to mitigate acute hematopoietic radiation syndrome (H-ARS) in mice. Of these, five bore a 4-nitrophenylsulfonamide motif while 4 had a quinoline scaffold. All but two of the 15 significantly (p < 0.05) mitigated H-ARS in mice. We had previously reported that the lead 4-(nitrophenylsulfonyl)-4-phenylpiperazine compound (NPSP512), was active in mitigating multiple acute and late radiation syndromes in mice of more than one sex and strain. Unfortunately, the formulation of this drug had to be changed for regulatory reasons and we report here on the synthesis and testing of active analogs of NPSP512 (QS1 and 52A1) that have increased solubility in water and in vivo bioavailability while retaining mitigator activity against H-ARS (p < 0.0001) and other radiation syndromes. The lead quinoline 057 was also active in multiple murine models of radiation damage. Taken together, HTS of a total of 150,000 bioactive or chemical substances, combined with maximal common substructure analysis has resulted in the discovery of diverse groups of compounds that can mitigate H-ARS and at least some of which can mitigate multiple radiation syndromes when given starting 24 h after exposure. We discuss what is known about how these agents might work, and the importance of formulation and bioavailability.

Weak Magnetic Fields Enhance the Efficacy of Radiation Therapy.

PURPOSE: The clinical efficacy of radiation therapy is mechanistically linked to ionization-induced free radicals that cause cell and tissue injury through direct and indirect mechanisms. Free radical reaction dynamics are influenced by many factors and can be manipulated by static weak magnetic fields (WMF) that perturb singlet-triplet state interconversion. Our study exploits this phenomenon to directly increase ionizing radiation (IR) dose absorption in tumors by combining WMF with radiation therapy as a new and effective method to improve treatment. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Coils were custom made to produce both homogeneous and gradient magnetic fields. The gradient coil enabled simultaneous in vitro assessment of free radical/reactive oxygen species reactivity across multiple field strengths from 6 to 66 G. First, increases in IR-induced free radical concentrations using oxidant-sensitive fluorescent dyes in a cell-free system were measured and verified. Next, human and murine cancer cell lines were evaluated in in vitro and in vivo models after exposure to clinically relevant doses of IR in combination with WMF. RESULTS: Cellular responses to IR and WMF were field strength and cell line dependent. WMF was able to enhance IR effects on reactive oxygen species formation, DNA double-strand break formation, cell death, and tumor growth. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that the external presence of a magnetic field enhances radiation-induced cancer cell injury and death in vitro and in vivo. The effect extends beyond the timeframe when free radicals are induced in the presence of radiation into the window when endogenous free radicals are produced and therefore extends the applicability of this novel adjunct to cancer therapy in the context of radiation treatment.

Risk factors for lymphatic filariasis and mass drug administration non-participation in Mandalay Region, Myanmar.

BACKGROUND: Myanmar commenced a lymphatic filariasis (LF) elimination programme in 2000. Whilst the country has made considerable progress since then, a number of districts have demonstrated persistent transmission after many rounds of mass drug administration (MDA). The causes of unsuccessful MDA have been examined elsewhere; however, there remains little information on the factors that contribute in Myanmar. METHODS: We conducted an analysis of factors associated with persistent infection, LF-related hydrocoele and MDA participation in an area with ongoing transmission in 2015. A cross-sectional household survey was undertaken in 24 villages across four townships of Mandalay Region. Participants were screened for circulating filarial antigen (CFA) using immunochromatographic tests and, if positive, for microfilaria by night-time thick blood slide. Individuals 15 year and older were assessed for filariasis morbidity (lymphoedema and, if male, hydrocoele) by ultrasound-assisted clinical examination. A pre-coded questionnaire was used to assess risk factors for LF and for non-participation (never taking MDA). Significant variables identified in univariate analyses were included in separate step-wise multivariate logistic regressions for each outcome. RESULTS: After adjustment for covariates and survey design, being CFA positive was significantly associated with age [odds ratio (OR) 1.03, 95% CI 1.01-1.06), per year], male gender (OR 3.14, 1.27-7.76), elevation (OR 0.96, 0.94-0.99, per metre) and the density of people per household room (OR 1.59, 1.31-1.92). LF-related hydrocoele was associated with age (OR 1.06, 1.03-1.09, per year) and residing in Amarapura Township (OR 8.93, 1.37-58.32). Never taking MDA was associated with male gender [OR 6.89 (2.13-22.28)] and age, particularly in females, with a significant interaction term. Overall, compared to those aged 30-44 years, the proportion never taking MDA was higher in all age groups (OR highest in those < 5 years and > 60 years, ranging from 3.37 to 12.82). Never taking MDA was also associated with residing in Amarapura township (OR 2.48, 1.15-5.31), moving to one's current village from another (OR 2.62, 1.12-6.11) and ever having declined medication (OR 11.82, 4.25-32.91). Decreased likelihood of never taking MDA was associated with a higher proportion of household members being present during the last MDA round (OR 0.16, 0.03-0.74) and the number visits by the MDA programme (OR 0.69, 0.48-1.00). CONCLUSIONS: These results contribute to the understanding of LF and MDA participation-related risk factors and will assist Myanmar to improve its elimination and morbidity management programmes.

Acute kidney injury risk in orthopaedic trauma patients pre and post surgery using a biomarker algorithm and clinical risk score.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) after major trauma is associated with increased mortality. The aim of this study was to assess if measurement of blood biomarkers in combination with clinical characteristics could be used to develop a tool to assist clinicians in identifying which orthopaedic trauma patients are at risk of AKI. This is a prospective study of 237 orthopaedic trauma patients who were consecutively scheduled for open reduction and internal fixation of their fracture between May 2012 and August 2013. Clinical characteristics were recorded, and 28 biomarkers were analysed in patient blood samples. Post operatively a combination of H-FABP, sTNFR1 and MK had the highest predictive ability to identify patients at risk of developing AKI (AUROC 0.885). Three clinical characteristics; age, dementia and hypertension were identified in the orthopaedic trauma patients as potential risks for the development of AKI. Combining biomarker data with clinical characteristics allowed us to develop a proactive AKI clinical tool, which grouped patients into four risk categories that were associated with a clinical management regime that impacted patient care, management, length of hospital stay, and efficient use of hospital resources.

Low-Dose Radiation Therapy (LDRT) for COVID-19: Benefits or Risks?

The limited impact of treatments for COVID-19 has stimulated several phase 1 clinical trials of whole-lung low-dose radiation therapy (LDRT; 0.3-1.5 Gy) that are now progressing to phase 2 randomized trials worldwide. This novel but unconventional use of radiation to treat COVID-19 prompted the National Cancer Institute, National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to convene a workshop involving a diverse group of experts in radiation oncology, radiobiology, virology, immunology, radiation protection and public health policy. The workshop was held to discuss the mechanistic underpinnings, rationale, and preclinical and emerging clinical studies, and to develop a general framework for use in clinical studies. Without refuting or endorsing LDRT as a treatment for COVID-19, the purpose of the workshop and this review is to provide guidance to clinicians and researchers who plan to conduct preclinical and clinical studies, given the limited available evidence on its safety and efficacy.

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP): A novel mechanism for reducing ethanol consumption and seeking behaviors in female alcohol preferring (P) rats.

Atrial Naturietic Peptide (ANP) is a neuropeptide that regulates function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, immune and neuroimmune system, and epigenetic factors. Research has indicated that ANP may mediate alcohol intake, withdrawal, and craving like behaviors. ANP receptors are present in the mesocorticolimbic (MCL) reward pathway of the brain, which includes the nucleus accumbens (Acb) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The objectives of the present study were to examine the effects of ANP microinjected into Acb subregions (Shell (Sh), Core (Co), ventral to AcbSh) on operant ethanol (EtOH) self-administration and into posterior VTA (pVTA) on EtOH-seeking behavior of female alcohol-preferring (P) rats. In the first experiment, ANP (0, 10 µg, or 100 µg) was microinjected into subregions of the Acb to determine its effects on EtOH self-administration. In the second experiment, ANP was microinjected into pVTA to determine its effects on Pavlovian Spontaneous Recovery (PSR) of responding, a measure of context-induced EtOH-seeking behavior. Administration of ANP directly into the AcbSh significantly reduced EtOH self-administration compared to vehicle, whereas ANP into the AcbCo or areas directly ventral to the AcbSh did not alter responding for EtOH. Microinjection of ANP into the pVTA significantly reduced responding on the EtOH-associated lever during the PSR test. The data indicate that activation of ANP systems in the (a) AcbSh can inhibit EtOH intake, and (b) in the pVTA can inhibit EtOH-seeking behavior. The results suggest that manipulations of the ANP system could be a potential target for pharmacotherapeutic intervention to treat alcohol use disorder. Supported in part by AA07462, AA07611, AA10717, AA10721, AA013522, AA019366, AA020908, AA022287, and AA024612.

The reinforcing effects of ethanol within the prelimbic cortex and ethanol drinking: Involvement of local dopamine D2 receptor-mediated neurotransmission.

Previous studies have identified important mesolimbic regions in supporting the reinforcing effects of ethanol. However, the involvement of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), another key region within the mesocorticolimbic system, in ethanol reinforcement has been understudied. The objective of the current study was to examine the role of the prelimbic (PL) cortex sub-region of the mPFC in ethanol reinforcement and drinking. Intracranial self-administration was used to examine the reinforcing effects of ethanol within the PL cortex. Quantitative microdialysis was used to measure basal extracellular DA concentrations and clearance in the PL cortex following chronic ethanol drinking. In addition, the involvement of dopamine (DA) D2 receptors within the PL cortex on the reinforcing effects of ethanol and ethanol drinking was determined. Ethanol was dose-dependent self-administered into the PL cortex, with significantly more infusions elicited by 100-200 mg% ethanol than vehicle. Co-infusion of the D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride significantly reduced ethanol self-administration. Chronic ethanol drinking significantly elevated basal extracellular DA concentrations without altering DA clearance. Microinjection of sulpiride into the PL cortex selectively reduced ethanol, but not saccharine, drinking. These results indicate that the PL cortex supported the reinforcing effects of ethanol, and that ethanol drinking enhanced basal DA neurotransmission within the PL cortex. In addition, D2 receptor antagonism within the PL cortex reduced ethanol self-administration and drinking. Collectively, these findings revealed important DA mechanisms within the PL cortex in mediating ethanol reinforcement and drinking.

Selective breeding for high alcohol preference is associated with increased sensitivity to cannabinoid reward within the nucleus accumbens shell.

RATIONALE: The rate of cannabinoid intake by those with alcohol use disorder (AUD) exceeds that of the general public. The high prevalence of co-abuse of alcohol and cannabis has been postulated to be predicated upon both a common predisposing genetic factor and the interaction of the drugs within the organism. The current experiments examined the effects of cannabinoids in an animal model of AUD. OBJECTIVES: The present study assessed the reinforcing properties of a cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) agonist self-administered directly into the nucleus accumbens shell (AcbSh) in female Wistar and alcohol-preferring (P) rats. METHODS: Following guide cannulae surgery aimed at AcbSh, subjects were placed in an operant box equipped with an 'active lever' (fixed ratio 1; FR1) that caused the delivery of the infusate and an 'inactive lever' that did not. Subjects were arbitrarily assigned to one of seven groups that self-administered either artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF), or 3.125, 6.25, 12.5, or 25 pmol/100 nl of O-1057, a water-soluble CB1 agonist, dissolved in aCSF. The first four sessions of acquisition are followed by aCSF only infusates in sessions 5 and 6 during extinction, and finally the acquisition dose of infusate during session 7 as reinstatement. RESULTS: The CB1 agonist was self-administered directly into the AcbSh. P rats self-administered the CB1 agonist at lower concentrations and at higher rates compared to Wistar rats. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the data indicate selective breeding for high alcohol preference has produced rats divergent in response to cannabinoids within the brain reward pathway. The data support the hypothesis that there can be common genetic factors influencing drug addiction.

The Rewarding and Anxiolytic Properties of Ethanol within the Central Nucleus of the Amygdala: Mediated by Genetic Background and Nociceptin.

In humans, alcohol is consumed for its rewarding and anxiolytic effects. The central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) is considered a neuronal nexus that regulates fear, anxiety, and drug self-administration. Manipulations of the CeA alter ethanol (EtOH) consumption under numerous EtOH self-administration models. The experiments determined whether EtOH is reinforcing/anxiolytic within the CeA, whether selective breeding for high alcohol consumption alters the rewarding properties of EtOH in the CeA, and whether the reinforcing/anxiolytic effects of EtOH in the CeA are mediated by the neuropeptides corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and nociceptin. The reinforcing properties of EtOH were determined by having male Wistar and Taconic alcohol-preferring (tP) rats self-administer EtOH directly into the CeA. The expression of anxiety-like behaviors was assessed through multiple behavioral models (social interaction, acoustic startle, and open field). Coadministration of EtOH and a CRF1 antagonist (NBI35965) or nociceptin on self-administration into the CeA and anxiety-like behaviors was determined. EtOH was self-administered directly into the lateral CeA, and tP rats self-administered a lower concentration of EtOH than Wistar rats. EtOH microinjected into the lateral CeA reduced the expression of anxiety-like behaviors, indicating an anxiolytic effect. Coadministration of NBI35965 failed to alter the rewarding/anxiolytic properties of EtOH in the CeA. In contrast, coadministration of the nociceptin enhanced both EtOH reward and anxiolysis in the CeA. Overall, the data indicate that the lateral CeA is a key anatomic location that mediates the rewarding and anxiolytic effects of EtOH, and local nociceptin receptors, but not local CRF1 receptors, are involved in these behaviors. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Alcohol is consumed for the stimulatory, rewarding, and anxiolytic properties of the drug of abuse. The current data are the first to establish that alcohol is reinforcing and anxiolytic within the lateral central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and that the nociceptin system regulates these effects of alcohol within the CeA.

Spontaneous Early Withdrawal Behaviors after Chronic 24-hour Free-Choice Access to Ethanol.

AIMS: Abstinence after chronic alcohol consumption leads to withdrawal symptoms, which are exacerbated after repeated cycles of relapse. This study examined withdrawal-like behaviors after chronic ethanol drinking, with or without repeated cycles of deprivation. METHODS: Male alcohol-preferring (P) rats had access to continuous ethanol (CE), chronic ethanol with repeated deprivation (RD), or remained ethanol naïve (EN). The RD group experienced seven cycles of 2 weeks of deprivation and 2 weeks of re-exposure to ethanol after an initial 6 weeks of ethanol access. Withdrawal was measured after an initial 24 h of ethanol re-exposure in the RD group, which coincided with the same day of ethanol access in the CE group. Withdrawal-like behavior was measured by (a) ethanol intake during the initial 24 h of re-exposure, (b) locomotor activity (LMA) in a novel field 9-13 h after removal of ethanol at the beginning of the fifth re-exposure cycle and (c) acoustic startle responding (ASR) 8-15 h after removal of ethanol at the beginning of the sixth re-exposure cycle. RESULTS: The RD rats displayed a 1-h alcohol deprivation effect (ADE) (temporary ethanol increase), relative to CE rats, during the first to fourth and seventh re-exposure cycles. RD and CE rats displayed significant increases in LMA than EN rats. Regarding ASR, RD rats displayed significantly greater ASR relative to EN rats. CONCLUSION: This study confirms that P rats meet the animal model criterion for ethanol-associated dependence, without a reliance on either behavioral (limited fluid access) or pharmacological (seizure threshold manipulation) challenges.