A systematic review of contemporary competency-based education and training for pharmacy practitioners and students.

BACKGROUND: The use of competency-based education (CBE) worldwide is increasing and has been advocated for by key reports in health professional education. Recent developments, including the first global competency framework for pharmacists published by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) in 2012, can help facilitate CBE adoption. However, adopting CBE is complex and involves various features and stages of development. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review examines pharmacy education and training to identify features of CBE-related approaches currently in use worldwide to develop a picture of contemporary CBE-related activity in pharmacy for the purpose of guiding future development. METHOD: Scopus, Web of Science, Medline, Embase, and ERIC electronic databases were searched to identify relevant literature. Studies associated with CBE or training of pharmacy practitioners and related postgraduate or undergraduate students were included. Studies were limited to those published in English from 2010 to 2021. Two authors performed the screening and selection of studies, and a 3rd author resolved any discrepancies. The review followed PRSIMA guidelines and was registered with PROSPERO under CRD42022296424. The findings were analysed using an inductive approach and presented descriptively. RESULTS: Twenty-eight studies were included in the review, all of which originate from high-income countries, spanning a range of educational levels and research designs. A total of 20 features and 21 supporting components were identified and categorised, connected to those previously identified in the closely linked medical literature, and categorised into 6 overarching themes: design, teaching and learning, feedback and assessment, faculty, resources, and internal and external factors. A collective understanding of the concept of competency, in combination with a shared vision between education, regulation, and practice, underpins successful application of the CBE approach. CONCLUSIONS: This review summarises common features of CBE across the globe which can be used to guide further developments in pharmacy education. Mutual consensus on the design and delivery of CBE features ensures that the intended learning outcomes are in alignment with the learner's experience and congruent with the realities of pharmacy practice.

Cognitive impairment in humanized APP×PS1 mice is linked to Aß(1-42) and NOX activation.

Cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is strongly associated with both extensive deposition of amyloid ß peptides and oxidative stress, but the exact role of these indices in the development of dementia is not clear. This study was designed to determine the relationship between cognitive impairment, activation of the free radical producing enzyme NADPH oxidase (NOX), and progressive changes in Aß deposition and solubility in humanized APP×PS1 knock-in mice of increasing age. Data show that cognitive performance and expression of key synaptic proteins were progressively decreased in aging APP×PS1 mice. Likewise, NOX activity and expression of the specific NOX subunit NOX4 were significantly increased in APP×PS1 mice in an age-dependent manner, and NOX activity and cognitive impairment shared a significant linear relationship. Data further show that age-dependent increases in Aß(1-42) had a significant linear relationship with both NOX activity and cognitive performance in APP×PS1 knock-in mice. Collectively, these data show that NOX expression and activity are significantly upregulated with age in this humanized model of Aß pathogenesis, and suggest that NOX-associated redox pathways are intimately linked to both the loss of cognitive function and the deposition of Aß(1-42).