Expanding the π-system of Fatty Acid-Anion Transporter Conjugates Modulates Their Mechanism of Proton Transport and Mitochondrial Uncoupling Activity.

Mitochondrial uncoupling by small molecule protonophores is a promising strategy for developing novel anticancer agents. Recently, aryl urea substituted fatty acids (aryl ureas) were identified as a new class of protonophoric anticancer agents. To mediate proton transport these molecules self-assemble into membrane-permeable anionic dimers in which intermolecular hydrogen bonds between the carboxylate and aryl-urea anion receptor delocalise the negative charge across the aromatic π-system. In this work, we extend the aromatic π-system by introducing a second phenyl substituent to the aryl urea scaffold and compare the proton transport mechanisms and mitochondrial uncoupling actions of these compounds to their monoaryl analogues. It was found that incorporation of meta-linked phenyl substituents into the aryl urea scaffold enhanced proton transport in vesicles and demonstrated superior capacity to depolarise mitochondria, inhibit ATP production and reduce the viability of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. In contrast, diphenyl ureas linked through a 1,4-distribution across the phenyl ring displayed diminished proton transport activity, despite both diphenyl urea isomers possessing similar binding affinities for carboxylates. Mechanistic studies suggest that inclusion of a second aryl ring changes the proton transport mechanism, presumably due to steric factors that impose higher energy penalties for dimer formation.

N,N'-Dimethylsquaramide as a central scaffold for anionophore design.

The N,N'-dimethylation of a diphenylsquaramide induces a conformational change in the orientation of the phenyl rings. This has been exploited to create a series of bis-urea, -thiourea and -squaramide anionophores. The compounds were shown to bind to Cl- using proton NMR titration techniques and to transport H+/Cl- through the lipid bilayers, whereas a non-methylated analogue displayed limited transport activity. Despite their potency in transport studies, the series had a negligible impact on cancer cell viability.

Fatty Acid-Activated Proton Transport by Bisaryl Anion Transporters Depolarises Mitochondria and Reduces the Viability of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells.

In respiring mitochondria, the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane is used to drive ATP production. Mitochondrial uncouplers, which are typically weak acid protonophores, can disrupt this process to induce mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in cancer cells. We have shown that bisaryl urea-based anion transporters can also mediate mitochondrial uncoupling through a novel fatty acid-activated proton transport mechanism, where the bisaryl urea promotes the transbilayer movement of deprotonated fatty acids and proton transport. In this paper, we investigated the impact of replacing the urea group with squaramide, amide and diurea anion binding motifs. Bisaryl squaramides were found to depolarise mitochondria and reduce MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell viability to similar extents as their urea counterpart. Bisaryl amides and diureas were less active and required higher concentrations to produce these effects. For all scaffolds, the substitution of the bisaryl rings with lipophilic electron-withdrawing groups was required for activity. An investigation of the proton transport mechanism in vesicles showed that active compounds participate in fatty acid-activated proton transport, except for a squaramide analogue, which was sufficiently acidic to act as a classical protonophore and transport protons in the absence of free fatty acids.

A potent fluorescent transmembrane HCl transporter perturbs cellular pH and promotes cancer cell death.

A series of fluorescent coumarin bis-ureas 1-4 have been synthesised, and their anion transport properties studied. The compounds function as highly potent HCl co-transport agents in lipid bilayer membranes. Single crystal X-ray diffraction of compound 1 showed antiparallel stacking of the coumarin rings, stabilised by hydrogen bonds. Binding studies, using 1H-NMR titration, showed moderate chloride binding in DMSO-d6/0.5% with 1 : 1 binding mode (for transporter 1) and 1 : 2 binding mode (host: guest, for transporters 2-4). We examined the cytotoxicity of compounds 1-4 against three cancer cell lines, lung adenocarcinoma (A549), colon adenocarcinoma (SW620) and breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7). The most lipophilic transporter, 4 showed a cytotoxic effect against all three cancer cell lines. Cellular fluorescence studies showed compound 4 crossed the plasma membrane and localised in the cytoplasm after a short time. Interestingly, compound 4, lacking any lysosome targeting groups, was co-localised with LysoTracker Red at 4 and 8 h in the lysosome. Cellular anion transport of compound 4 was assessed by measuring intracellular pH and showed a decrease in cellular pH, which may be due to the capacity of transporter 4 to co-transport HCl across biological membranes, as evidenced by the liposomal studies.

Structure-Activity Relationship and Mechanistic Studies of Bisaryl Urea Anticancer Agents Indicate Mitochondrial Uncoupling by a Fatty Acid-Activated Mechanism.

Targeting the cancer cell mitochondrion is a promising approach for developing novel anticancer agents. The experimental anticancer agent N,N'-bis(3,5-dichlorophenyl)urea (SR4) induces apoptotic cell death in several cancer cell lines by uncoupling mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) using a protein-free mechanism. However, the precise mechanism by which SR4 depolarizes mitochondria is unclear because SR4 lacks an acidic functional group typically found in protein-independent uncouplers. Recently, it was shown that structurally related thioureas can facilitate proton transport across lipid bilayers by a fatty acid-activated mechanism, in which the fatty acid acts as the site of protonation/deprotonation and the thiourea acts as an anion transporter that shuttles deprotonated fatty acids across the phospholipid bilayer to enable proton leak. In this paper, we show that SR4-mediated proton transport is enhanced by the presence of free fatty acids in the lipid bilayer, indicating that SR4 uncouples mitochondria through the fatty acid-activated mechanism. This mechanistic insight was used to develop a library of substituted bisaryl ureas for structure-activity relationship studies and subsequent cell testing. It was found that lipophilic electron-withdrawing groups on bisaryl ureas enhanced electrogenic proton transport via the fatty acid-activated mechanism and had the capacity to depolarize mitochondria and reduce the viability of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. The most active compound in the series reduced cell viability with greater potency than SR4 and was more effective at inhibiting adenosine triphosphate production.

Delivering anion transporters to lipid bilayers in water.

Cyclodextrins have been employed as delivery agents for lipophilic anion transporters, which allow their incorporation into lipid bilayers without using an organic solvent or pre-incorporation.

Acridinone-based anion transporters.

The arrangement of hydrogen bond donors around a central lipophilic scaffold has proven to be a successful strategy in the development of potent chloride transporters. In this work, we revisit an acridinone 1,9-bis(thio)urea motif which had previously shown promise as an anion sensor and expand the series of compounds by appending a variety of electron-withdrawing groups to the peripheral phenyl moieties. High levels of activity were achieved by the most effective compounds in the series, which facilitated strictly electroneutral transport.

Synthetic Na+/K+ exchangers promote apoptosis by disturbing cellular cation homeostasis.

A number of artificial cation ionophores (or transporters) have been developed for basic research and biomedical applications. However, their mechanisms of action and the putative correlations between changes in intracellular cation concentrations and induced cell death remain poorly understood. Here, we show that three hemispherand-strapped calix[4]pyrrole-based ion-pair receptors act as efficient Na+/K+ exchangers in the presence of Cl- in liposomal models and promote Na+ influx and K+ efflux (Na+/K+ exchange) in cancer cells to induce apoptosis. Mechanistic studies reveal that these cation exchangers induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in cancer cells by perturbing intracellular cation homeostasis, promote generation of reactive oxygen species, and eventually enhance mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. However, they neither induce osmotic stress nor affect autophagy. This study provides support for the notion that synthetic receptors, which perturb cellular cation homeostasis, may provide new small molecules with potentially useful apoptotic activity.

Duplication of amyloid precursor protein (APP), but not prion protein (PRNP) gene is a significant cause of early onset dementia in a large UK series.

Amyloid precursor protein gene (APP) duplications have been identified in screens of selected probands with early onset familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD). A causal role for copy number variation (CNV) in the prion protein gene (PRNP) in prion dementias is not known. We aimed to determine the prevalence of copy number variation in APP and PRNP in a large referral series, test a screening method for detection of the same, and expand knowledge of clinical phenotype. We used a 3-tiered screening assay for APP and PRNP duplication (exonic real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction [exon-qPCR], fluorescent microsatellite quantitative PCR [fm-q-PCR], and Illumina array [Illumina Inc., San Diego, CA, USA]) for analysis of a heterogeneous referral series comprising 1531 probands. Five of 1531 probands screened showed APP duplication, a similar prevalence to APP missense mutation. Real-time quantitative PCR and fluorescent microsatellite quantitative PCR were similar individually but are theoretically complementary; we used Illumina arrays as our reference assay. Two of 5 probands were from an autosomal dominant early onset Alzheimer's disease (familial Alzheimer's disease) pedigree. One extensive, noncontiguous duplication on chromosome 21 was consistent with an unbalanced translocation not including the Down's syndrome critical region. Seizures were prominent in the other typical APP duplications. A range of imaging, neuropsychological, cerebrospinal fluid, and pathological findings are reported that extend the known phenotype. APP but not PRNP duplication is a significant cause of early onset dementia in the UK. The recognized phenotype may be expanded to include the possibility of early seizures and apparently sporadic disease which, in part, may be due to different mutational mechanisms. The pros and cons of our screening method are discussed.