A lesson from history? Worsening mortality and the rise of the Nazi Party in 1930s Germany.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis that worsening mortality rates in the early 1930s were associated with increasing votes for the Nazi Party. STUDY DESIGN: The study consist of panel data with fixed effects. METHODS: We used district- and city-level regression models of Nazi vote shares on changes in all-cause mortality rates in 866 districts and 214 cities during federal elections from 1930 to 1933, adjusting for election and district/city-level fixed effects and sociodemographic factors. As a falsification test, we used a subset of deaths less susceptible to sociopolitical factors. RESULTS: Historical downward trends in mortality rates reversed in the early 1930s in Germany. At the district/city level, these increases were positively associated with a rising Nazi vote share. Each increase of 10 deaths per 1000 population was associated with a 6.51-percentage-point increase in Nazi vote share (95% confidence interval = 1.17-11.8). The strongest associations were with deaths due to infectious and communicable diseases, suicides, and alcohol-related deaths. Worsening mortality had no association with votes for the Communist Party or for other contemporary political parties. Greater welfare payments were associated with smaller increases in both mortality and Nazi vote share, and adjusting for welfare generosity mitigated the association by approximately one-third. CONCLUSIONS: Worsening mortality rates were positively associated with the rise of the Nazi Party in 1930s Germany. Social security mitigated the association between mortality and Nazi vote share. Our findings add to the growing evidence that population health declines can be a 'canary in the coal mine' for the health of democracies.

[Sealing of the hepatic resection area using hemostat devices does not improve results of adequate surgery]. / Versiegelung der Leberresektionsfläche mit Gewebsklebematerialien bewirkt keine weitere Verbesserung adäquater Chirurgie.

PURPOSE: In hepatic resections, there has been a high quality demand. The aim of this systematic clinical, prospective, unblinded unicenter observational study with two arms in an unselected patient cohort was to investigate whether hemostat device can significantly improve outcome in resective liver surgery, in particular, in high risk patients. METHODS: All consecutive patients (mean age, 60.5 [range, 17 - 96] years) who underwent hepatic resection (ntotal = 770) were prospectively documented in a computer-based registry at a university hospital (tertiary center) over a time period of 10 years and retrospectively evaluated specifically with regard to the use (-/+; in daily practice and intraoperative decision-making) of hemostat device (Tissucol(®), n = 59/Tachocomb(®), n = 202/combination, n = 55) indicated (among others) by drainage volume, inflammatory parameters and rate of specific complications (nvalidated = 541 [100 %]). RESULTS: Most frequently, (a-)/typical segmental resections were used: n = 192/90 (3-segment resection, only n = 38). 1) For the assignment of patients to the two different groups (-/+ hemostat device), weight loss and type of resection were found as significant factors (trend: ASA, cirrhosis), for the amount of drainage volume, ASA, sex, Karnofsky Performance Scale and also type of resections using independent distributed statistical tests (such as χ(2), U test [Mann/Whitney]; H test [Kruskal-Willis]; correlation coefficient by Spearman) - no impact: smoking, diabetes, BMI, ethanol. 2) Not taking into account these parameters, the use of hemostat device was characterized by an increased drainage volume (negative control < Tissucol = Tachocomb < combination). 3) Using multifactorial analysis of variance, it was found even under correction by the factors with significant impact elucidated in the single test that the application of hemostat device onto the hepatic resection area resulted unexpectedly rather in an increase than a decrease of the drainage volume but 4) under accompanying more pronounced increase of the white blood cell count (leucocytosis). 5) General and specific complications such as postoperative bleeding, biliary fistula and subhepatic abscess were not further lowered in a significant manner using hemostat device. CONCLUSION: Adequate surgery in the operative management of hepatic resection area cannot further be improved or optimized using hemostat device. In this context, drainage volume may not be considered a sufficient rather an orienting parameter. However, there is an inflammatory response detectable most likely indicated by a(n un-)specific effusion and increase of white blood cell count, which can be interpreted as a) being characteristic for the problematic group of patients, in whom hemostat device was decided to be useful and was finally used in daily prectice, or b) reactive inflammation to foreign material.

Awareness, knowledge, and perceptions of infertility, fertility assessment, and assisted reproductive technologies in the era of oocyte freezing among female and male university students.

PURPOSE: The aims of our study were to analyze university student's knowledge and attitude towards parenthood, female fertility, fertility assessment, and oocyte freezing and to explore associations between these aspects and the participant's sex or degree program they were registered for. METHODS: The study was designed as an online-based cross-sectional survey. A total of 1144 participants answered 27 questions. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Linear regression models were employed to explore associations between sex or university program and attitude towards parenthood, fertility assessment, and oocyte freezing. RESULTS: Female students and students of non-medical degree programs were more likely to plan to have children earlier than male students or students of medical degree programs. Female sex or medical degree program was associated with an overall better knowledge about women's fertility. The better the participant's knowledge about fertility, the more likely the students would consider assisted reproductive technology (ART) treatments as an option to become pregnant when ovarian reserve is low. The majority of students knew the principal of oocyte freezing but would not consider using it. However, in the case of a low ovarian reserve, oocyte freezing would be accepted as an option. CONCLUSIONS: Students planned to have children at an age when women's fertility is already declining. Gaps in knowledge about female fertility and the potential of ART were more pronounced in male students and students of non-medical degree programs suggesting an increase of fertility awareness is necessary in these groups to prevent them from infertility and unwanted childlessness.

Utilization of virus φCh1 elements to establish a shuttle vector system for Halo(alkali)philic Archaea via transformation of Natrialba magadii.

In the study described here, we successfully developed a transformation system for halo(alkali)philic members of the Archaea. This transformation system comprises a series of Natrialba magadii/Escherichia coli shuttle vectors based on a modified method to transform halophilic members of the Archaea and genomic elements of the N. magadii virus Ch1. The shuttle vector pRo-5, based on the repH-containing region of Ch1, stably replicated in E. coli and N. magadii and in several halophilic and haloalkaliphilic members of the Archaea not transformable so far. The Ch1 operon ORF53/ORF54 (repH) was essential for pRo-5 replication and was thus identified as the minimal replication origin. The plasmid allowed homologous and heterologous gene expression, as exemplified by the expression of Ch1 ORF3452, which encodes a structural protein, and the reporter gene bgaH of Haloferax lucentense in N. magadii. The new transformation/vector system will facilitate genetic studies within N. magadii and other haloalkaliphilic archaea and will allow the detailed characterization of the gene functions of N. magadii virus Ch1 in their extreme environments.

Mast cell reactivity at the margin of human skin wounds: an early cell marker of wound survival?

Detecting the vitality of mechanical skin wounds (antemortem versus postmortem injury) in human cadavers remains a specifically forensic problem. To determine whether skin mast cells (MCs) are activated during the very early phase of human wound healing we performed a histomorphometric evaluation of the extent of MC enzyme loss as an indication of MC degranulation at the wound margins of skin wounds in 64 human cadavers. We compared the number of tryptase-reactive MCs, which are said not to loose all of their enzyme activity during degranulation process, with the number of naphthol AS-D chloroacetate esterase (NAS-DClAE)-positive MCs, which loose their complete enzyme activity in the form of enzyme-positive granula after activation. The enzyme activity was evaluated on sequential histological sections after autopsy as an indirect quantification of the number of degranulated MCs. Most of the victims had died within 10-60 min after injury (n=50), 12 survived between 60 min and 24h, and only 2 victims survived more than 24h (12 days each). The number of enzyme-positive MCs were counted in six successive visual fields (0.785 mm(2)) on the one hand located parallel to and--on the other hand--at increasing distances outward from the wound margins. In victims surviving the injury less than 60 min the average number of NAS-DClAE-reactive MCs next to the wound margin was significantly lower than the number of tryptase-reactive MCs. The extent of the reduction in NAS-DClAE-reactive MC counts correlated inversely with the distance from the wound edges. Our findings show that MCs undergo very early loss of NAS-DClAE activity at wound margins, and thus appear to be an early cell marker of wound survival. However, definitive evidence that the enzyme loss (degranulation) represents a vital process can only be obtained by comparing MC enzyme loss induced by injury during intact circulation with the MC reaction to injury inflicted very shortly after cardiac arrest, a question that can only be answered by animal experiments.

Macrophage subsets in mechanical brain injury (MBI)--a contribution to timing of MBI based on immunohistochemical methods: a pilot study.

Cortical hemorrhages as a consequence of closed mechanical brain injury (MBI) trigger an inflammatory response including a distinct increase of macrophages. According to published data this reactive macrophage population is heterogenous as to their immunological properties. The expression of certain immunohistochemically detectable epitopes of macrophages, however, may correlate with the posttraumatic interval (PTI). In a pilot study, 50 selected cases of cortical hemorrhages with 1 min to 1.5 years PTI were examined by light microscopy and macrophages were labeled with CD68-, HLA-D-, HAM-56-, LN-5-, and 25F9-antibodies, while hemosiderin was detected by a Prussian-blue reaction. Qualitative and semiquantitative investigations were performed. The semiquantitative study included 5 different classes. The results of the study revealed a distinct timetable of the appearance of macrophages labeled with certain antibodies. While HLA-D immunoreactivity was detected after a PTI of 6h in the cortex and white matter bordering the traumatic hemorrhage, CD68 immunopositive macrophages were present after 12h, LN-5 and HAM-56 after 48h, and 25F9 within 10d. Hemosiderin-containing macrophages were detectable within 100h in the same region. Within the hemorrhage itself a certain immunoreactivity of macrophages starts several hours before: CD68 after 3h, LN-5 after 24h, HAM-56 after 31h, hemosiderin after 76h, and 25F9 after 4d. For forensic purposes these observations are of crucial importance because the time course of the appearance of certain immunopositive macrophages labeled with different antibodies allows a differentiated timing of contusional injuries; however, the cause of this different immunopositive reaction remains unexplained. The observed time dependency of different macrophage antigen expressions in cortical hemorrhages after closed head injury is a suitable method to estimate the PTI and will allow a forensic reliable estimation if future investigations are extended on higher numbers of cases and/or additional markers.

Mutations of mitochondrial DNA - cause or consequence of the ageing process?

Ageing is a stochastic process which leads to a gradual decline in cellular, tissue and even organ function, especially in energy dependent postmitotic tissues like skeletal muscle, brain and heart. The mitochondrial theory of ageing is based on the assumption that reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals generated in the immediate vicinity of the electron transport chain during the lifespan of an organism damage proteins, lipids and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Whereas it was generally believed that mitochondria are among the important players regarding the ageing process, two recent important approaches shed new light on the complex interactions. It has been shown by single cell experiments and computer simulation models that mitochondrial mutations are generated stochastically in childhood or early adolescence and accumulate clonally in a cell or muscle fibre, leading to a local age related impairment of cellular energy supply. Other important observations come from mitochondrial mutator mice, harbouring mitochondrial mutations due to a deficient repair enzyme (POLG). These mice reveal a premature senescence but do not exhibit a vicious cycle of increased oxidative damage or ROS production as has been postulated by the mitochondrial theory of ageing. At the moment it is hard to decide, if mitochondrial mutations are the cause or consequence of human ageing, but it is suggested that mitochondrial point mutations are just the consequence, while deletions seem to play a causal role.

A new sensitive short pentaplex (ShoP) PCR for typing of degraded DNA.

Analysis of short tandem repeat makers has become the most powerful tool for DNA typing in forensic casework analysis. Unfortunately, typing of DNA extracted from telogen shed hairs, bones buried in the soil or from paraffin-embedded, formalin-fixed tissue often reveals no results due to the degradation of DNA. The reduction in size of the target fragments by development of new primers and their combination in multiplex approaches open a new field of DNA analysis. Here we present a new sensitive short pentaplex PCR including the loci amelogenin, TH01, VWA, D3S1358 and D8S1179. Validation tests of our new method included sensitivity, mixtures, human specificity, artificial degradation of DNA by DNase I and case work analysis on a panel of different forensic samples. The detection limit was 12.5 pg of human DNA, and mixtures of 50 pg in a total of 1000 pg were clearly detectable and revealed complete profiles. Only DNA extracts of human primates displayed a few signals, whereas other animal, fungal or bacterial DNA showed no signals. Our method proved extremely valuable in the analysis of artificially degraded DNA and in forensic cases, where only poorly preserved DNA was available. This approach and other similar methods can aid in the analysis of samples where allelic drop out of larger fragments is observed. It is highly recommended to develop more of these multiplexes to improve poor quality DNA typing.

Mitochondrial DNA deletions and the aging heart.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations appear to be associated with a wide spectrum of human disorders and proposed to be a potential contributor of aging. However, in an age-dependent increase of the common 4977 bp deletion of human mtDNA still many unanswered questions remain. Comparing mtDNA copy levels in different tissues revealed that cardiac muscle had the highest, while the cortex cerebelli showed the lowest copy number of mtDNA in every donor. Intriguingly, mtDNA copy number showed no changes during aging. In heart tissue, the amount of 4977 bp mtDNA deletion increased in an age-dependent manner showing significant differences at the age of 40 years and older (p<0.005). In vitro studies analyzing human normal cells transfected with telomerase (BJ-T) revealed that oxidative stress (OS)--a well accepted promoter of aging--induced 4977 bp deletion and point mutations as demonstrated by real-time PCR and DHPLC analysis. Interestingly, OS induced apoptosis only in transformed human fibroblasts by activation of the intrinsic (mitochondrial-mediated) signalling pathway as indicated by morphological damage of mitochondria, DNA laddering and increase of the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. In conclusion, in heart tissue, the amount of the 4977 bp deletion increased in an age-dependent manner and it was more detectable after the 4th decade of life, although there was some scatter in the data. Since, apoptosis was induced by the mitochondria-mediated pathway only in transformed cells, the role for apoptosis in normal tissue of the aging heart remains unclear.

Fall or shaken: traumatic brain injury in children caused by falls or abuse at home - a review on biomechanics and diagnosis.

In cases of traumatic brain injuries in children it may be difficult to differentiate between physical abuse and accidental occurrence. This review will shed light on discriminating epidemiological as well as biomechanical data, morphological findings, and clinical features. As a basic principle, simple injuries are caused by simple mechanisms like falls whereas life-threatening injuries should be attributed to abuse until proven otherwise. Implausibilities between reported events and mechanisms by caregivers as well as more than one explanation of injury indicate suspicion of child abuse. From reviewing the literature, it can be stated that falls from less than 1.5 m lead only in few cases to severe brain injuries. Children who experienced a fall at home seldom exhibit fractures of the skull but just minor intracranial injuries without neurological deficits. Regarding biomechanical aspects, multiple or complex skull fractures, depression fractures, additional fractures of the body, and intracranial hemorrhages as a consequence of an impact are the most important findings in child abuse. Moreover, additional specific morphological criteria give evidence of clinical and/or post-mortem diagnosis of the shaken baby syndrome. These include subdural hemorrhage and laceration of the brain and retinal bleeding, epidural hemorrhage of the cervical cord, gripping marks (bruises) on chest and/or shoulders, and tearing injuries of the throat and neck muscles. Post-mortem signs of recurrent shaken baby syndrome are indicated by iron-positive cells or microglial cells in neuronal or retinal tissue. A clinical diagnosis will be dependent on the one hand on the exclusion of coagulation diseases, on the other hand on the demonstration of a subdural hemorrhage by means of neuroimaging techniques, i.e., CT and MRI, as well as retinal hemorrhage. The shaken baby syndrome will usually be observed within the first year of life. The doctor has to manifest his diagnosis to the caregivers and - before informing the caregivers - he must be sure of his diagnosis.

Gunshot injuries to the head and brain caused by low-velocity handguns and rifles. A review.

OBJECTIVES: Reconstruction of brain injuries is a basic task of forensic neuropathology. For better understanding of the wound ballistics of gunshot injuries to the brain caused by low-velocity firearms (E(o) < 550 J), we reviewed the respective contributions of: (1) biomechanical reconstruction by postmortem imaging techniques, (2) biometry of the extent of very early microscopic tissue destruction, and (3) microscopic studies on the type and extent of early microscopic reactions around the permanent missile track. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A selected case material of 47 victims of lethal gunshot wounding to the brain was studied. (1) Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques were compared with macroscopic findings in 17 cases. (2) Morphometric evaluation of the zones of cellular and axonal destruction around the permanent track was performed in 20 cases (survival time: <90 min). (3) Microscopic studies of the emigration of leukocytes and macrophages plus axonal expression of beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta-APP) were conducted in 10 cases (survival time: >90 min). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: (1) Imaging procedures provided valuable information on entrance and exit wounds, the missile track and secondary changes. (2) Biometry revealed a destruction zone of ca. 3.6 cm around the permanent track corresponding to the "temporary cavity". (3) Microscopic studies of reactive changes demonstrated axonal injury at sites remote from the permanent cavity that could explain the very early respiratory arrest following low-velocity gunshot injury.

Detection of the 4977 bp deletion of mitochondrial DNA in different human blood cells.

As recently reported, it is possible to detect and quantify the amount of the deleted human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in whole blood, platelets and peripheral blood mononuclear cells using real-time PCR. The aim of this study was to identify the cell types in human blood carrying the 4977 bp deleted mtDNA and their accumulation with regard to donor age. Whole blood from 10 healthy donors (five individuals aged from 19 to 22 years, five aged from 57 to 61 years) was separated in various cell populations such as granulocytes, B cells/monocytes and T cells. Purity of the cell isolates was determined by flow cytometry. Total DNA was extracted and 250 ng DNA of each cell type was subjected to PCR using fluorescent-labelled primer pairs. The specific PCR product of the 4977 bp deletion was quantified using an automated detection system. The accumulation of the 4977 bp deletion was more pronounced in T lymphocytes and granulocytes in comparison to B lymphocytes/monocytes. The amount of the 4977 bp deletion in whole blood varied from 0 to 0.00018%, in T lymphocytes from 0.00009 to 0.00160%, in granulocytes from 0 to 0.00162% and in the B lymphocyte/monocyte fraction from 0 to 0.00025%. The higher amount of the deletion in T lymphocytes may be due to a subset of lymphocytes with a longer lifespan thus facilitating the accumulation of mitochondrial damage. The higher amount in granulocytes could have the explanation in the higher release of free radicals for prevention of infectious diseases, because free radicals are supposed to damage the macromolecules of this cell type. The 10 donors displayed differences in the pattern of the accumulation with regard to the different cell types, but no age-dependent accumulation was observed. Differences of the accumulation pattern may be due to actual individual living behaviour or environmental factors.

Forensic pathological aspects of postmortem imaging of gunshot injury to the head: documentation and biometric data.

To determine the value of imaging procedures such as computer tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head in providing additional information of forensic relevance, we examined 17 cadavers of human victims of gunshot wounds to the head. Three of the victims briefly survived the gunshot wound. The weapons involved were all guns with low muzzle energy (<550 J), i.e., handguns and low-velocity rifles. In the majority of cases ( n=15) a penetrating wound to the head was found, only two cases showed the bullet lodged in the brain. In some cases, imaging of the skull and brain was performed prior to autopsy; in others imaging took place after autopsy on the isolated, formalin-fixed brain. The imaging findings were correlated with the criminological data and the results of macroscopic and microscopic examination of the brain. The findings on the bony structures of the head provided imaging criteria for differentiation between entrance and exit of the gunshot wounds, which corresponded to the forensic pathological findings at autopsy. CT scans and MRI of the cerebral parenchyma revealed lanes of opaque bone and missile fragments along the course of the missile, which allowed recognition of the missile track in 3D reconstruction. Biometric reconstruction allowed easy determination of the angle of the missile track in all three planes. Examination of the parenchymal structures and imaging of the isolated, formalin-fixed brain enabled tracking of the missile path directly along the zone of destruction as well as demonstration of secondary changes such as air bubbles along the bullet course, hemorrhage and edema. The significance of a translucent zone surrounding the missile track in several cases remains unclear; it probably represents tissue destruction secondary to temporary cavitation. The imaging procedures described here allowed excellent documentation of in situ conditions, while the storing of data enabled biometric reconstruction for determination of the angle of trajectory, of entrance and exit wounds, and the extent of tissue damage along the missile track and, possibly, in the zone of temporary cavitation.

Quantification of human mitochondrial DNA in a real time PCR.

Recently, a moderately priced machine for real-time quantitative PCR has become available, the Perkin Elmer 5700. The rapid and quantitative assay of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number is potentially useful in a variety of molecular, evolutionary and forensic fields. Using this new tool, we have evaluated the precision and reliability of the real time PCR to quantify undeleted mitochondrial genome copy number, and to determine the frequency of an age-associated deletion of 4977 base pairs in length, in 42 human iliopsoas muscle DNA samples from persons of known age. We have evaluated the accuracy with which age can be predicted, knowing only the frequency of this common 4977 bp deletion, and derived a statistical formula which describes the confidence with which the 4977 bp frequency predicts age. The results indicate that the mutation frequency could be used to distinguish between tissue from young and old individuals. However in this data set, while there was considerable agreement of 4977 bp frequency among replicates from the same individual sample, there was substantial diversity of mean mutation frequency between individuals of the same or similar ages. The simplest interpretation of these results is that there are biological modifiers of 4977 bp frequency that are age-independent, which are potentially interesting but may limit the usefulness of this deletion frequency alone as a "molecular forensic clock."

Mitotic brain cells are just as prone to mitochondrial deletions as neurons: a large-scale single-cell PCR study of the human caudate nucleus.

Mitochondria are considered a key element in the process of organismic aging, because of their fundamental role in cellular energy generation. In the course of oxidative phosphorylation, harmful free radicals are continuously produced damaging the mitochondrial (mt) genome. One of the consequences is the occurrence of large-scale deletions in mtDNA molecules. The 4977 bp common deletion accumulates exponentially with age, in a mosaic pattern, especially in postmitotic tissues. In order to investigate whether certain cell characteristics underlie this pattern of distribution, and to look for possible age-related changes, two cell types in the caudate nucleus of the human brain from five young and five senescent subjects were analysed by single-cell PCR.MAP2-positive neurons and GFAP-positive astrocytes were isolated by micromanipulation. For each of the 10 cases, at least 30 cells of each type were collected and subjected to PCR individually. Screening for the presence of the common deletion yielded no significant differences in relative distribution, neither between astrocytes and neurons, nor between healthy young and old humans. Our results imply that the age-dependent increase of the common deletion cannot come about by an increase of independent deletion events in a greater proportion of cells, and that mitotic rate is not a major cellular risk factor for deletion accumulation in the caudate nucleus.

Low hepatic lipase activity is a novel risk factor for coronary artery disease.

BACKGROUND: The crucial function of hepatic lipase (HL) in lipid metabolism has been well established, but the relationship between HL activity and coronary artery disease (CAD) is disputed. METHODS AND RESULTS: We measured HL activity in the postheparin plasma of 200 consecutive men undergoing elective coronary angiography and determined the degree of CAD with the extent score, which has been shown to be better correlated with known risk factors than other measures of CAD extent. We found a significant inverse correlation between HL activity and the extent of CAD (r=-0.19, P<0.01). This association was mainly due to patients with HDL levels >0.96 mmol/L (n=94, r=-0.30, P<0.005). HL activity was lower in 173 patients with CAD than in 40 controls with normal angiograms (286+/-106 versus 338+/-108 nmol. mL(-1). min(-1), P<0.01). To correct for potential confounding factors, we performed multivariate analyses that confirmed the independent association of HL activity with CAD extent. In addition, the presence of the T allele at position -514 in the HL promoter, which leads to a reduced HL promoter activity, was associated with lower HL activity (r=0.30, P<0.001) and higher CAD extent (42.2+/-20.8 versus 35.3+/-23.6 [extent score], P<0.05). In patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia, calcified lesions in ECG-gated spiral computed tomography were higher in patients with low HL activity (6.3+/-6.8 versus 1.5+/-3.1, P=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that low HL activity is associated with CAD. Therefore, HL might be useful for CAD risk estimation and might be a target for pharmacological intervention.

Toward a model of false recall: experimental manipulation of encoding context and the collection of verbal reports.

The likelihood of false recall in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm was shown to depend on encoding context in two experiments. When fillers had been preselected to decrease the likelihood of encoding the critical lure's semantic features, false recall was virtually eliminated. However, when the same words were presented rearranged in different presentation orders, levels of false recall that were found in earlier DRM studies (Robinson & Roediger, 1997) were replicated. The role of encoding processes in the DRM paradigm was further explored with additional participants completing the experiment while thinking aloud. During encoding of word lists, participants verbalized semantic elaboration of the critical lure while studying the word lists. A path analysis demonstrated that participants' verbalization of critical lures during encoding reliably predicted their level of false recall.

Time of drug elimination in chronic drug abusers. Case study of 52 patients in a "low-step" detoxification ward.

The elimination time of illicit drugs and their metabolites is of both clinical and forensic interest. In order to determine the elimination time for various drugs and their metabolites we recruited 52 volunteers in a protected, low-step detoxification program. Blood samples were taken from each volunteer for the first 7 days, daily, urine sample for the first 3 weeks, daily. Urine was analyzed using a fluorescence-polarization immunoassay (FPIA) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), serum using GC/MS. The elimination times of the drugs and/or their metabolites in urine and serum as well as the tolerance intervals/confidence intervals were determined. Due to the sometimes extremely high initial concentrations and low cut-off values, a few of the volunteers had markedly longer elimination times than those described in the literature. The cut-off values were as follows: barbiturates II (200ng/ml), cannabinoids (20ng/ml), cocaine metabolites (300ng/ml), opiates (200ng/ml). GC/MS detected the following maximum elimination times: total morphine in urine up to 270.3h, total morphine and free morphine in serum up to 121.3h, monoacetylmorphine in urine up to 34.5h, 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in urine up to 433.5h, THC-COOH in serum up to 74.3h, total codeine in urine up to 123h, free codeine in urine up to 97.5h, total codeine in serum up to 29h, free codeine in serum up to 6.3h, total dihydrocodeine (DHC) in urine up to 314.8h, free DHC in urine up to 273.3h, total and free DHC in serum up to 50.1h. Cocaine and its metabolites were largely undetectable in the present study.