Suprazygomatic Maxillary Nerve Blocks and Opioid Requirements in Pediatric Adenotonsillectomy: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Pain management following pediatric adenotonsillectomies is opioid-inclusive, leading to potential complications. Objective: To investigate the use of suprazygomatic maxillary nerve (SZMN) blocks to reduce pain and opioid use after pediatric intracapsular adenotonsillectomy and to measure recovery duration and incidence of complications. Design, Setting, and Participants: This was a randomized, blinded, prospective single-center tertiary pediatric hospital that included 60 pediatric patients (2-14 years old) scheduled for intracapsular adenotonsillectomy from November 2021 to March 2023. Patients were excluded for having combined surgical procedures, developmental delay, coagulopathy, chronic pain history, known or predicted difficult airway, or unrepaired congenital heart disease. Participants were randomized to receive bilateral SZMN blocks (block group) or not (control group). Intervention: SZMN block administered bilaterally under general anesthesia for intracapsular adenotonsillectomy. Primary Outcomes and Measures: Opioid consumption, FLACC (Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability) scores, and rates of opioid-free postanesthesia care unit (PACU) stay. Secondary outcomes were recovery duration and incidence of adverse effects, ie, nausea, vomiting, block site bleeding, and emergency delirium. Results: The study population included 53 pediatric patients (mean [SD] age, 6.5 [3.6] years; 29 [55%] females; 24 [45%] males); 26 were randomly assigned to the SZMN block group and 27 to the control group. The mean (SD) opioid morphine equivalent consumption during PACU stay was 0.15 (0.14) mg/kg for the 27 patients in the control group compared with 0.07 (0.11) mg/kg for the 26 patients in the block group (mean difference, 0.08; 95% CI, 0.01-0.15; Cohen d, 0.64). The block group had a higher incidence of opioid-free PACU stays (n = 7 patients; 58%) compared with the control group (n = 15 patients; 26%) (mean difference, 32%; 95% CI, 5%-53%). Patients in the block group experienced lower FLACC scores (0.7 vs 1.6; mean difference, 0.9; 95% CI, 0.2-1.6; Cohen d, 0.7). The overall occurrence of adverse events was similar in the 2 groups, with no reported nerve block-related complications. Conclusions and Relevance: The results of the randomized clinical trial indicate that SZMN blocks are a useful adjunct tool for managing postoperative pain in pediatric intracapsular adenotonsillectomy. Use of these blocks during adenotonsillectomy provided clinically meaningful reductions of postoperative opioid consumption with a low risk of complications. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04797559.

Use of temporary tracheostomy occlusion to reduce the risk of sternal wound infection after sternotomy in congenital cardiac surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a method of reducing the risk of sternal wound infection after sternotomy in children with a pre-existing tracheostomy. To report our outcomes using this method from 1 January, 2013 to 31 August, 2023. METHODS: We describe a method for temporarily occluding the tracheal stoma with a removable implant with the primary goal of reducing the risk of sternotomy wound infection by preventing soilage due to tracheostomal secretions. We then performed a retrospective review of all children who underwent temporary tracheostomal occlusion between 1 January, 2013 and 31 August, 2023 at our quaternary care children's hospital. Clinical variables were extracted from the hospital medical records. The rates of antibiotic use and minor and major complications during the period when the stoma plug was in place were recorded. RESULTS: Totally, 19 patients underwent tracheal stoma plugging prior to sternotomy and were included in our analysis. There were two cases of sternal wound infection; one case occurred while the stoma plug was in place, and one developed four days following plug removal. There was one minor complication, with one patient requiring stoma revision via serial dilation at bedside at the time of recannulation. There were no deaths. CONCLUSION: Temporary occlusion of the tracheal stoma with an impermeable plug is a viable option for reducing the risk of sternal wound infection in children with a pre-existing tracheostomy who are undergoing sternotomy.

Use of Neoadjuvant Vandetanib in Aggressive Pediatric Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma.

Novel use of vandetanib in a child with aggressive MTC with prolonged response to treatment.

Cough Sounds in Screening and Diagnostics: A Scoping Review.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to examine applications of cough sounds towards screening tools and diagnostics in the biomedical and engineering literature, with particular focus on disease types, acoustic data collection protocols, data processing and analytics, accuracy, and limitations. DATA SOURCES: PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus, Cochrane Library, IEEE Xplore, Engineering Village, and ACM Digital Library were searched from inception to August 2021. REVIEW METHODS: A scoping review was conducted on screening and diagnostic uses of cough sounds in adults, children, and animals, in English peer-reviewed and gray literature of any design. RESULTS: From a total of 438 abstracts screened, 108 articles met inclusion criteria. Human studies were most common (77.8%); the majority focused on adults (57.3%). Single-modality acoustic data collection was most common (71.2%), with few multimodal studies, including plethysmography (15.7%) and clinico-demographic data (7.4%). Data analytics methods were highly variable, with 61.1% using machine learning, the majority of which (78.8%) were published after 2010. Studies commonly focused on cough detection (41.7%) and screening of COVID-19 (11.1%); among pediatric studies, the most common focus was diagnosis of asthma (52.6%). CONCLUSION: Though the use of cough sounds in diagnostics is not new, academic interest has accelerated in the past decade. Cough sound offers the possibility of an accessible, noninvasive, and low-cost disease biomarker, particularly in the era of rapid development of machine learning capabilities in combination with the ubiquity of cellular technology with high-quality recording capability. However, most cough sound literature hinges on nonstandardized data collection protocols and small, nondiverse, single-modality datasets, with limited external validity. Laryngoscope, 134:1023-1031, 2024.

Parathyroid Autofluorescence in Pediatric Thyroid Surgery: Experience With False Positive and False Negative Results.

Devices for near-infrared light stimulation of autofluorescence (NIRAF) allow for intraoperative identification of parathyroid glands with high sensitivity in adults. However, their performance in the pediatric population is unknown. In this case series with chart review at a tertiary academic children's hospital, we investigated pediatric patients undergoing thyroid surgery and concurrent use of a probe-based NIRAF device. Thirteen patients (ages 6-18 years) underwent thyroid and/or neck dissection procedures, and 2 patients had revision procedures for a total of 15 cases with the NIRAF device. Eight cases had NIRAF values that matched surgeon opinion of parathyroid tissue or histology when available. Six cases had false positive NIRAF readings (40.0%) and 1 case had false negative readings (6.7%). Compared with surgeon opinion or histology, the NIRAF device confirmed 26 of 34 parathyroid gland candidates (76.5%). These devices need further investigation in pediatric patients, whose tissues may have different autofluorescence characteristics.

Ankyloglossia: Clinical and Sociodemographic Predictors of Diagnosis and Management in the United States, 2004 to 2019.

OBJECTIVE: The past 2 decades have seen a rapid increase in the diagnosis of ankyloglossia. Patients are often managed by lingual frenotomy. The objective is to define the clinical and socioeconomic factors that determine which patients receive frenotomy. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective analysis of commercially insured children. SETTING: Optum Data Mart database. METHODS: Trends in frenotomy including provider and setting were described. Multiple logistic regression was used to determine predictors of frenotomy. RESULTS: Diagnosis of ankyloglossia increased from 2004 to 2019 (from 3377 in 2004 to 13,200 in 2019), while lingual frenotomy similarly increased from 1483 in 2004 to 6213 in 2019. The proportion of inpatient frenotomy procedures increased from 6.2% to 16.6% from 2004 to 2019, with pediatricians having the highest odds of performing inpatient frenotomies (odds ratio: 4.32, 95% confidence interval: 4.08, 4.57). Additionally, during the study period, the proportion of frenotomies performed by pediatricians increased from 13.01% in 2004 to 28.38% in 2019. In multivariate regression analyses, frenotomy was significantly associated with the male sex, white non-Hispanic ethnicity, higher parental income and education, and a greater number of siblings. CONCLUSION: Ankyloglossia has been increasingly diagnosed in the past 2 decades, and among patients with ankyloglossia, frenotomy is increasingly performed. This trend was driven at least in part due to increasing rates of pediatricians as proceduralists. After accounting for maternal and patient-level clinical factors, socioeconomic differences in the management of ankyloglossia were observed.

Sociodemographic Disparities in the Diagnostic Management of Pediatric Thyroid Nodules.

Importance: Thyroid cancer is the most common pediatric endocrine malignant neoplasm. Disparities in the workup of thyroid nodules may be significantly associated with thyroid cancer outcomes. Objective: To determine the association of sociodemographic factors with the odds of receiving a biopsy, timeliness of the procedure, and risk of nodule malignancy. Design, Setting, and Participants: This was a retrospective cross-sectional study using insurance claims data from the Optum Clinformatics Data Mart database. The study cohort comprised pediatric patients diagnosed with single thyroid nodules between 2003 and 2020. Data analysis was performed from January 1, 2003, to June 30, 2020. Main Outcomes and Measures: Multivariable logistic regression models were used to identify demographic variables associated with biopsy and nodule malignant neoplasm. A multivariable linear regression model was used to assess the time between thyroid nodule diagnosis and biopsy. Results: Of 11 643 children (median [IQR] age at diagnosis or procedure, 15 [12-17] years; 8549 [73.2%] were female and 3126 [26.8%] were male) diagnosed with single thyroid nodules, 2117 (18.2%) received a biopsy. Among the patients who received a biopsy, 304 (14.4%) were found to have a malignant nodule. Greater parental education was associated with a shorter diagnosis-to-biopsy interval (mean difference, -7.24 days; 95% CI, -13.75 to -0.73). Older age at nodule diagnosis (odds ratio [OR], 1.11; 95% CI, 1.09-1.13) and female gender (OR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.11-1.40) were associated with increased odds of receiving a biopsy, while Black/African American (OR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.65-0.99) and Hispanic (OR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.72-0.99) patients had lower odds of receiving a biopsy compared with White patients. Finally, female gender (OR, 1.08; 95% CI, 0.80-1.47) was not associated with lower odds of nodule malignant neoplasm. Conclusions and Relevance: Findings of this cross-sectional study highlight disparities in the diagnostic management of pediatric thyroid nodules. These results call for future work to ensure equitable access to thyroid care for all children.

International Pediatric Otolaryngology Group (IPOG) consensus recommendations: Evaluation and management of congenital tracheal stenosis.

OBJECTIVES: To outline an expert-based consensus of recommendations for the diagnosis and management of pediatric patients with congenital tracheal stenosis. METHODS: Expert opinions were sought from members of the International Pediatric Otolaryngology Group (IPOG) via completion of an 18-item survey utilizing an iterative Delphi method and review of the literature. RESULTS: Forty-three members completed the survey providing recommendations regarding the initial history, clinical evaluation, diagnostic evaluation, temporizing measures, definitive repair, and post-repair care of children with congenital tracheal stenosis. CONCLUSION: These recommendations are intended to be used to support clinical decision-making regarding the evaluation and management of children with congenital tracheal stenosis. Responses highlight the diverse management strategies and the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to care of these patients.

Nonsurgical Orthodontic Airway Plate Treatment for Newborns With Robin Sequence.

Despite promising outcomes for >50 years, nonsurgical orthodontic airway plates (OAP) are only infrequently offered for babies with Robin sequence in a few parts of the world. This article demonstrates possibility of providing functional improvement using an OAP to help these babies overcome their functional and structural difficulties on their own. Two consecutively treated cases are presented exemplifying that OAP treatment that had originated from Europe is reproducible and effective in an institution in the United States.

Effects of Social Determinants of Health Care on Pediatric Thyroid Cancer Outcomes in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To identify social determinants of health care that are associated with poorer pediatric well-differentiated thyroid cancer (WDTC) outcomes and increased stage at presentation. STUDY DESIGN: Using the SEER database (Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results), we retrospectively gathered data on pediatric WDTC across the United States between 1973 and 2015. SETTING: All patients between 0 and 19 years old with a diagnosis of WDTC were included. METHODS: Patient variables were analyzed for relationships to AJCC stage at presentation (American Joint Committee on Cancer), overall survival, and disease-specific survival. RESULTS: Among 3913 patients with pediatric thyroid cancer, 3185 were female (81.4%), 3366 had papillary thyroid cancer (85.3%), and 367 had follicular thyroid cancer (9.4%). Two- and 5-year overall and disease-specific survival approached 100%. However, when outcomes were analyzed by specific populations, male sex, non-Caucasian race, poverty, and language isolation were linked to worse overall survival. Male sex and poverty were associated with poorer disease-specific survival. Regarding overall AJCC stage at presentation, male sex and Black race were related to higher overall presenting AJCC stage. Later AJCC T stage at presentation was seen in male, Hispanic, Asian, and Black patients. There were no variables significantly related to following through with recommended surgery. CONCLUSION: Pediatric WDTC continues to carry an excellent prognosis in the United States. However, when we consider specific populations, the social determinants of health care affect survival and disease burden at presentation: male sex, poverty, language isolation, and race affected survival and/or AJCC stage at presentation in pediatric WDTC.

Next-Generation Sequencing as an Auxiliary Tool in Pediatric Laryngeal Lymphoma Diagnosis.

Lymphomatous involvement of the larynx is a rare entity. We present a case of atypical laryngotracheitis as the initial manifestation of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in a pediatric patient. The diagnosis was aided through the use of microbial cell-free DNA (mcfDNA) testing, which detected the presence of Epstein-Barr virus in the patient's plasma. This enabled the consideration of an Epstein-Barr virus-related lymphoproliferative process, leading to additional workup and the final diagnosis of lymphoma. To our knowledge, this is the first case of mcfDNA testing leading not simply to an infectious organism, but further to a new oncologic diagnosis. Plasma mcfDNA testing has the potential to inform clinical practice beyond classic infectious disease manifestations. In this article, we review both the possible future applications and the areas of further investigation that remain.

Pediatric Subspecialty Adoption of Telemedicine Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Early Descriptive Analysis.

Telemedicine has rapidly expanded in many aspects of pediatric care as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, little is known about what factors may make pediatric subspeciality care more apt to long-term adoption of telemedicine. To better delineate the potential patient, provider, and subspecialty factors which may influence subspecialty adoption of telemedicine, we reviewed our institutional experience. The top 36 pediatric subspecialties at Stanford Children's Health were classified into high telemedicine adopters, low telemedicine adopters, and telemedicine reverters. Distance from the patient's home, primary language, insurance type, institutional factors such as wait times, and subspecialty-specific clinical differences correlated with differing patterns of telemedicine adoption. With greater awareness of these factors, institutions and providers can better guide patients in determining which care may be best suited for telemedicine and develop sustainable long-term telemedicine programming.

Modeling human adaptive immune responses with tonsil organoids.

Most of what we know about adaptive immunity has come from inbred mouse studies, using methods that are often difficult or impossible to confirm in humans. In addition, vaccine responses in mice are often poorly predictive of responses to those same vaccines in humans. Here we use human tonsils, readily available lymphoid organs, to develop a functional organotypic system that recapitulates key germinal center features in vitro, including the production of antigen-specific antibodies, somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation, plasmablast differentiation and class-switch recombination. We use this system to define the essential cellular components necessary to produce an influenza vaccine response. We also show that it can be used to evaluate humoral immune responses to two priming antigens, rabies vaccine and an adenovirus-based severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccine, and to assess the effects of different adjuvants. This system should prove useful for studying critical mechanisms underlying adaptive immunity in much greater depth than previously possible and to rapidly test vaccine candidates and adjuvants in an entirely human system.

Systemic Bevacizumab for Treatment of Respiratory Papillomatosis: International Consensus Statement.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: The purpose of this study is to develop consensus on key points that would support the use of systemic bevacizumab for the treatment of recurrent respiratory papillomatosis (RRP), and to provide preliminary guidance surrounding the use of this treatment modality. STUDY DESIGN: Delphi method-based survey series. METHODS: A multidisciplinary, multi-institutional panel of physicians with experience using systemic bevacizumab for the treatment of RRP was established. The Delphi method was used to identify and obtain consensus on characteristics associated with systemic bevacizumab use across five domains: 1) patient characteristics; 2) disease characteristics; 3) treating center characteristics; 4) prior treatment characteristics; and 5) prior work-up. RESULTS: The international panel was composed of 70 experts from 12 countries, representing pediatric and adult otolaryngology, hematology/oncology, infectious diseases, pediatric surgery, family medicine, and epidemiology. A total of 189 items were identified, of which consensus was achieved on Patient Characteristics (9), Disease Characteristics (10), Treatment Center Characteristics (22), and Prior Workup Characteristics (18). CONCLUSION: This consensus statement provides a useful starting point for clinicians and centers hoping to offer systemic bevacizumab for RRP and may serve as a framework to assess the components of practices and centers currently using this therapy. We hope to provide a strategy to offer the treatment and also to provide a springboard for bevacizumab's use in combination with other RRP treatment protocols. Standardized delivery systems may facilitate research efforts and provide dosing regimens to help shape best-practice applications of systemic bevacizumab for patients with early-onset or less-severe disease phenotypes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 5 Laryngoscope, 131:E1941-E1949, 2021.

Risk Assessment and Early Mobilization Pathway Following Pediatric Tracheostomy: A Pilot Study.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: To confirm the standard of care pertaining to postoperative mobilization practices following initial tracheostomy, to establish face validity of novel early mobilization tools, and to conduct a safety and feasibility pilot study. STUDY DESIGN: Multi-institutional survey and prospective cohort study. METHODS: Experts at our tertiary-care children's hospital developed an Early Pediatric Mobility Pathway for tracheostomy patients utilizing a novel risk-assessment tool. Surveys were distributed to professional colleagues in similar children's hospitals to establish face validity and incorporate respondent feedback. Additional surveys were disseminated to tertiary-care children's hospitals across the country to establish the current standard of care, and a pilot study was conducted. RESULTS: Seventy-seven percent of respondents from tertiary hospitals across the country confirmed the standard of care to defer mobilization until the first trach change. Greater than 83% of the respondents used to establish face validity of the tools agreed with the clinical components and scoring structure. The safety and feasibility of early mobilization prior to initial trach change was confirmed with a pilot of 10 pediatric patients without any adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: Mobilization of pediatric patients prior to initial trach change is feasible and can be safe when risk factors are assessed by a multidisciplinary team. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4 Laryngoscope, 131:E653-E658, 2021.

Multidisciplinary Safety Recommendations After Tracheostomy During COVID-19 Pandemic: State of the Art Review.

OBJECTIVE: In the chronic phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, questions have arisen regarding the care of patients with a tracheostomy and downstream management. This review addresses gaps in the literature regarding posttracheostomy care, emphasizing safety of multidisciplinary teams, coordinating complex care needs, and identifying and managing late complications of prolonged intubation and tracheostomy. DATA SOURCES: PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus, Google Scholar, institutional guidance documents. REVIEW METHODS: Literature through June 2020 on the care of patients with a tracheostomy was reviewed, including consensus statements, clinical practice guidelines, institutional guidance, and scientific literature on COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 virology and immunology. Where data were lacking, expert opinions were aggregated and adjudicated to arrive at consensus recommendations. CONCLUSIONS: Best practices in caring for patients after a tracheostomy during the COVID-19 pandemic are multifaceted, encompassing precautions during aerosol-generating procedures; minimizing exposure risks to health care workers, caregivers, and patients; ensuring safe, timely tracheostomy care; and identifying and managing laryngotracheal injury, such as vocal fold injury, posterior glottic stenosis, and subglottic stenosis that may affect speech, swallowing, and airway protection. We present recommended approaches to tracheostomy care, outlining modifications to conventional algorithms, raising vigilance for heightened risks of bleeding or other complications, and offering recommendations for personal protective equipment, equipment, care protocols, and personnel. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Treatment of patients with a tracheostomy in the COVID-19 pandemic requires foresight and may rival procedural considerations in tracheostomy in their complexity. By considering patient-specific factors, mitigating transmission risks, optimizing the clinical environment, and detecting late manifestations of severe COVID-19, clinicians can ensure due vigilance and quality care.

Static endoscopic swallow evaluation in children.

OBJECTIVES: Static Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing (SEES) has been demonstrated to have a strong correlation with the Videofluoroscopic Swallow Study (VFSS) in adults. In children, Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluations of Swallow (FEES) are frequently performed to avoid repeated VFSS; however, a subset of the population does not tolerate FEES. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the utility of a modified SEES in children. METHODS: Charts of 50 consecutive patients who underwent FEES evaluations were reviewed. Patients age 3 months to 12 years undergoing SEES, FEES, and VFSS were extracted. We compared a binary assessment of outcome on SEES versus VFSS as the diagnostic standard to report characteristics, including sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predicted value. RESULTS: A total of 36 patients met all inclusion criteria (mean age 2.8 years). Using the VFSS as the diagnostic standard, residue seen on SEES had a sensitivity of 80.0%, specificity of 85.7%, a positive predictive value of 88.9%, and a negative predictive value of 75.0% for predicting deep penetration or aspiration. CONCLUSION: SEES may be helpful for developing an initial diagnostic impression and may serve as a platform for patient and caregiver counseling. In children who are unable to cooperate with FEES, SEES may provide clinical insight in predicting an abnormal swallow study; however, a normal SEES was less reliable in predicting a safe swallow on subsequent VFSS in this patient population. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4 Laryngoscope, 130:1590-1594, 2020.

Application-Based Translaryngeal Ultrasound for the Assessment of Vocal Fold Mobility in Children.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the evaluation of vocal fold mobility between flexible nasal laryngoscopy (FNL) and a handheld application-based translaryngeal ultrasound (TLUS) platform. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective analysis included patients with unknown vocal fold mobility status who underwent FNL and TLUS. SETTING: Tertiary referral center. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: TLUS was performed on 23 consecutive children (<18 years old) presenting for laryngoscopy due to unknown vocal fold mobility status. After the recording of three 10-second TLUS videos as well as FNL, the study was divided into 2 parts: parental assessment of laryngeal ultrasound at the time of patient evaluation and random practitioner assessment of ultrasound videos. RESULTS: We describe 23 patients who underwent TLUS and FNL. Ten patients (43.5%) had normal vocal fold function bilaterally, and 13 (56.5%) had either left or right vocal fold immobility. Family members and physicians correctly identified the presence and laterality of impaired vocal fold mobility in 22 of 23 cases (κ = 0.96). The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of FLUS in diagnosing vocal fold immobility were 92.3%, 100%, 100%, and 90.9%, respectively. Random practitioners accurately identified the presence and laterality of vocal fold immobility under all circumstances. CONCLUSION: A handheld application-based ultrasound platform is both sensitive and specific in its ability to identify vocal fold motion impairment. Portable handheld TLUS has the potential to serve as a validated screening examination, even by inexperienced providers, and in specific cases may obviate the need for an invasive transnasal laryngoscopy.

Pediatric Thyroid Cancer Incidence and Mortality Trends in the United States, 1973-2013.

Importance: The incidence of thyroid cancer is increasing by 3% annually. This increase is often thought to be attributable to overdiagnosis in adults. A previous study reported a 1.1% annual increase in the incidence of pediatric thyroid cancer. However, the analysis was limited to the period from 1973 to 2004 and was performed in a linear fashion, which does not account for changes in incidence trends over time. Objective: To analyze trends in pediatric thyroid cancer incidence based on demographic and tumor characteristics at diagnosis. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study included individuals younger than 20 years who had a diagnosis of thyroid cancer in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) 9 database from 1973 to 2013. Cases of thyroid cancer were identified using the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology, Third Edition and were categorized by histologic type, stage, and tumor size. Main Outcomes and Measures: Annual percent change (APC) in the incidence rates was calculated using joinpoint regression analysis. Results: Among 1806 patients included in the analysis, 1454 (80.5%) were female and 1503 (83.2%) were white; most patients were aged 15 to 19 years. The overall incidence rates of thyroid cancer increased annually from 0.48 per 100 000 person-years in 1973 to 1.14 per 100 000 person-years in 2013. Incidence rates gradually increased from 1973 to 2006 (APC, 1.11%; 95% CI, 0.56%-1.67%) and then markedly increased from 2006 to 2013 (APC, 9.56%; 95% CI, 5.09%-14.22%). The incidence rates of large tumors (>20 mm) gradually increased from 1983 to 2006 (APC, 2.23%; 95% CI, 0.93%-3.54%) and then markedly increased from 2006 to 2013 (APC, 8.84%; 95% CI, 3.20%-14.79%); these rates were not significantly different from incidence rates of small (1-20 mm) tumors. The incidence rates of regionally extended thyroid cancer gradually increased from 1973 to 2006 (APC, 1.44%; 95% CI, 0.68%-2.21%) and then markedly increased from 2006 to 2013 (APC, 11.16%; 95% CI, 5.26%-17.40%); these rates were not significantly different from the incidence rates of localized disease. Conclusions and Relevance: The incidence rates of pediatric thyroid cancer increased more rapidly from 2006 to 2013 than from 1973 to 2006. The findings suggest that there may be a co-occurring increase in thyroid cancer in the pediatric population in addition to enhanced detection.