Type 6 secretion dynamics within and between bacterial cells.

The bacterial type 6 secretion system (T6SS) functions as a virulence factor capable of attacking both eukaryotic and prokaryotic target cells by a process that involves protein transport through a contractile bacteriophage tail-like structure. The T6SS apparatus is composed, in part, of an exterior sheath wrapped around an interior tube. Here, we report that in living cells the cytoplasmic adenosine triphosphatase called ClpV specifically recognizes the contracted T6SS sheath structure, causing its disassembly within seconds. ClpV imaging allowed spatial and temporal documentation of cell-cell interactions (termed T6SS dueling) that likely mark the location of repeated T6SS-mediated protein translocation events between bacterial cells.

Type VI secretion requires a dynamic contractile phage tail-like structure.

Type VI secretion systems are bacterial virulence-associated nanomachines composed of proteins that are evolutionarily related to components of bacteriophage tails. Here we show that protein secretion by the type VI secretion system of Vibrio cholerae requires the action of a dynamic intracellular tubular structure that is structurally and functionally homologous to contractile phage tail sheath. Time-lapse fluorescence light microscopy reveals that sheaths of the type VI secretion system cycle between assembly, quick contraction, disassembly and re-assembly. Whole-cell electron cryotomography further shows that the sheaths appear as long tubular structures in either extended or contracted conformations that are connected to the inner membrane by a distinct basal structure. These data support a model in which the contraction of the type VI secretion system sheath provides the energy needed to translocate proteins out of effector cells and into adjacent target cells.

Diminished diarrheal response to Vibrio cholerae strains carrying the replicative form of the CTX(Phi) genome instead of CTX(Phi) lysogens in adult rabbits.

Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae strains are lysogens of CTX(Phi), a filamentous bacteriophage which encodes cholera toxin (CT). Following infection of recipient V. cholerae cells by CTX(Phi), the phage genome either integrates into the host chromosome at a specific attachment site (attRS) or exists as a replicative-form (RF) plasmid. We infected naturally occurring attRS-negative nontoxigenic V. cholerae or attenuated (CTX(-) attRS negative) derivatives of wild-type toxigenic strains with CTX(Phi) and examined the diarrheagenic potential of the strains carrying the RF of the CTX(Phi) genome using the adult rabbit diarrhea model. Under laboratory conditions, strains carrying the RF of CTX(Phi) produced more CT than corresponding lysogens as assayed by a G(M1)-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and by fluid accumulation in ligated ileal loops of rabbits. However, when tested for diarrhea in rabbits, the attRS-negative strains (which carried the CTX(Phi) genome as the RF) were either negative or produced mild diarrhea, whereas the attRS-positive strains with integrated CTX(Phi) produced severe fatal diarrhea. Analysis of the strains after intestinal passage showed that the attRS-negative strains lost the phage genome at approximately a fivefold higher frequency than under in vitro conditions, and 75 to 90% of cells recovered from challenged rabbits after 24 h were CT negative. These results suggested that strains carrying the RF of CTX(Phi) are unable to cause severe disease due to rapid loss of the phage in vivo, and the gastrointestinal environment thus provides selection of toxigenic strains with an integrated CTX(Phi) genome. These results may have implications for the development of live V. cholerae vaccine candidates impaired in chromosomal integration of CTX(Phi). These findings may also contribute to understanding of the etiology of diarrhea occasionally associated with nontoxigenic V. cholerae strains.

Vibrio cholerae-induced cellular responses of polarized T84 intestinal epithelial cells are dependent on production of cholera toxin and the RTX toxin.

To study the utility of in vitro-polarized intestinal cell monolayers for modeling Vibrio cholerae-host cell interactions, we added live V. cholerae bacteria to the apical surfaces of polarized T84 cell monolayers and monitored changes in electrical properties. We found that both classical and El Tor strains produce cholera toxin after addition to the monolayer, but induction is most likely due to medium components rather than bacterium-cell interactions. We also found that the RTX toxin is produced by El Tor strains. This toxin caused a loss of the barrier function of the paracellular tight junction that was measured as a decrease in transepithelial resistance. This decrease occurred when bacteria were added to either the apical or basolateral surfaces, indicating that the RTX toxin receptor is expressed on both surfaces. These results are discussed with regard to the applicability of the polarized T84 cell monolayers as an in vitro model of host-pathogen interactions.

Vibrio cholerae tolC is required for bile resistance and colonization.

TolC and its homologues are outer membrane proteins that are essential for the transport of many molecules across the cell envelope. In this study we characterized the gene encoding Vibrio cholerae TolC. V. cholerae tolC mutants failed to secrete the RTX cytotoxin, were hypersensitive to antimicrobial agents, and were deficient in intestinal colonization.

Helicobacter pylori mutagenesis by mariner in vitro transposition.

We have developed a method for generating transposon insertion mutants using mariner in vitro mutagenesis. The gene of interest was PCR-amplified and cloned. A kanamycin-marked mariner transposon was randomly inserted into the purified plasmid in an in vitro transposition reaction. After repair and propagation in Escherichia coli, purified mutagenized plasmid was introduced into Helicobacter pylori by natural transformation. Transformants were selected by plating on kanamycin. Mutants were predominantly the result of double homologous recombination, and multiple mutants (with insertions in distinct positions) were often obtained. The site of insertion was determined by PCR or sequencing. We have made mutations in known or potential virulence genes, including ureA, hopZ, and vacA, using kanamycin- and kanamycin/lacZ-marked transposons. Colonies carrying a kanamycin/lacZ transposon appeared blue on medium containing the chromogenic agent X-gal, allowing discrimination of mutant and wild-type H. pylori in mixed competition experiments.

Transposon-based approaches to identify essential bacterial genes.

Transposons are a powerful tool for identifying genes essential for bacterial viability. The availability of many bacterial genome sequences and the large number of genes of unknown function therein have inspired the generation of a variety of different approaches. These methods are described and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed.

In vivo covalent cross-linking of cellular actin by the Vibrio cholerae RTX toxin.

Enteric pathogens often export toxins that elicit diarrhea as a part of the etiology of disease, including toxins that affect cytoskeletal structure. Recently, we discovered that the intestinal pathogen Vibrio cholerae elicits rounding of epithelial cells that is dependent upon a gene we designated rtxA. Here we investigate the association of rtxA with the cell-rounding effect. We find that V. cholerae exports a large toxin, RTX (repeats-in-toxin) toxin, to culture supernatant fluids and that this toxin is responsible for cell rounding. Furthermore, we find that cell rounding is not due to necrosis, suggesting that RTX toxin is not a typical member of the RTX family of pore-forming toxins. Rather, RTX toxin causes depolymerization of actin stress fibers and covalent cross-linking of cellular actin into dimers, trimers and higher multimers. This RTX toxin-specific cross-linking occurs in cells previously rounded with cytochalasin D, indicating that G-actin is the toxin target. Although several models explain our observations, our simultaneous detection of actin cross-linking and depolymerization points toward a novel mechanism of action for RTX toxin, distinguishing it from all other known toxins.

Construction of a Vibrio cholerae vaccine candidate using transposon delivery and FLP recombinase-mediated excision.

Recent efforts to develop a vaccine against the diarrheal disease cholera have focused on the use of live attenuated strains of the causative organism, Vibrio cholerae. The Ogawa lipopolysaccharide phenotype is expressed by many epidemic strains, and motility defects reduce the risk of reactive diarrhea in vaccine recipients. We therefore converted a motile Inaba(+) vaccine candidate, Peru-2, to a nonmotile Ogawa(+) phenotype using a mariner-based transposon carrying rfbT, the gene required for expression of the Ogawa phenotype. Analysis of 22 nonmotile Peru-2 mutants showed that two were Ogawa(+), and both of these strains had insertions in the flgE gene. It was possible to convert these strains to antibiotic sensitivity by introducing a recombinase that acts on sites flanking the antibiotic marker on the transposon. The resulting strains are competent for colonization in infant mice and may therefore be suitable as vaccine candidates for use either independently or in a combination with strains of different biotypes and serotypes.

Association of protease activity in Vibrio cholerae vaccine strains with decreases in transcellular epithelial resistance of polarized T84 intestinal epithelial cells.

Culture supernatants prepared from reactogenic strains of Vibrio cholerae cause a decrease in the transcellular epithelial resistance of T84 intestinal cells. This decrease correlates with the presence of hemagglutinin/protease but not with the presence of other potential accessory toxins or proteases. These data suggest a possible role for hemagglutinin/protease in reactogenicity, although other factors may also contribute.

Genetic footprinting with mariner-based transposition in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The complete DNA sequence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa provides an opportunity to apply functional genomics to a major human pathogen. A comparative genomics approach combined with genetic footprinting was used as a strategy to identify genes required for viability in P. aeruginosa. Use of a highly efficient in vivo mariner transposition system in P. aeruginosa facilitated the analysis of candidate genes of this class. We have developed a rapid and efficient allelic exchange system by using the I-SceI homing endonuclease in conjunction with in vitro mariner mutagenesis to generate mutants within targeted regions of the P. aeruginosa chromosome for genetic footprinting analyses. This technique for generating transposon insertion mutants should be widely applicable to other organisms that are not naturally transformable or may lack well developed in vivo transposition systems. We tested this system with three genes in P. aeruginosa that have putative essential homologs in Haemophilus influenzae. We show that one of three H. influenzae essential gene homologs is needed for growth in P. aeruginosa, validating the practicality of this comparative genomics strategy to identify essential genes in P. aeruginosa.

DNA sequence of both chromosomes of the cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae.

Here we determine the complete genomic sequence of the gram negative, gamma-Proteobacterium Vibrio cholerae El Tor N16961 to be 4,033,460 base pairs (bp). The genome consists of two circular chromosomes of 2,961,146 bp and 1,072,314 bp that together encode 3,885 open reading frames. The vast majority of recognizable genes for essential cell functions (such as DNA replication, transcription, translation and cell-wall biosynthesis) and pathogenicity (for example, toxins, surface antigens and adhesins) are located on the large chromosome. In contrast, the small chromosome contains a larger fraction (59%) of hypothetical genes compared with the large chromosome (42%), and also contains many more genes that appear to have origins other than the gamma-Proteobacteria. The small chromosome also carries a gene capture system (the integron island) and host 'addiction' genes that are typically found on plasmids; thus, the small chromosome may have originally been a megaplasmid that was captured by an ancestral Vibrio species. The V. cholerae genomic sequence provides a starting point for understanding how a free-living, environmental organism emerged to become a significant human bacterial pathogen.

TnAraOut, a transposon-based approach to identify and characterize essential bacterial genes.

Identification of genes that encode essential products provides a promising approach to validation of new antibacterial drug targets. We have developed a mariner-based transposon, TnAraOut, that allows efficient identification and characterization of essential genes by transcriptionally fusing them to an outward-facing, arabinose-inducible promoter, PBAD, located at one end of the transposon. In the absence of arabinose, such TnAraOut fusion strains display pronounced growth defects. Of a total of 16 arabinose-dependent TnAraOut mutants characterized in Vibrio cholerae, four were found to carry insertions upstream of known essential genes (gyrB, proRS, ileRS, and aspRS) whereas the other strains carried insertions upstream of known and hypothetical genes not previously shown to encode essential gene products. One of the essential genes identified by this analysis appears to be unique to V. cholerae and thus may represent an example of a species-specific drug target.

Isolation of peptide aptamers that inhibit intracellular processes.

We have developed a method for isolation of random peptides that inhibit intracellular processes in bacteria. A library of random peptides expressed as fusions to Escherichia coli thioredoxin (aptamers) were expressed under the tight control of the arabinose-inducible P(BAD) promoter. A selection was applied to the library to isolate aptamers that interfered with the activity of thymidylate synthase (ThyA) in vivo. Expression of an aptamer isolated by this method resulted in a ThyA(-) phenotype that was suppressed by simultaneous overexpression of ThyA. Two-hybrid analysis showed that this aptamer is likely to interact with ThyA in vivo. The library also was screened for aptamers that inhibited growth of bacteria expressing them, and five such aptamers were characterized. Four aptamers were bacteriostatic when expressed, whereas one showed a bactericidal effect. Introduction of translational stop codons into various aptamers blocked their activity, suggesting that their biological effects were likely to be due to protein aptamer rather than RNA. Combinatorial aptamers provide a new genetic and biochemical tool for identifying targets for antibacterial drug development.

Use of lambda phage S and R gene products in an inducible lysis system for Vibrio cholerae- and Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium-based DNA vaccine delivery systems.

Novel methods for adapting DNA vaccine technology to the prevention of mucosal diseases are greatly needed. Here we show that regulated expression of phage lambda lysis genes S and R causes dramatic lysis of both Vibrio cholerae and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium cells with concomitant release of plasmid DNA into the surrounding media. We also used single and double DNase mutant strains to show that secreted V. cholerae DNases can adversely affect the integrity of DNA molecules released upon lysis. These results suggest that incorporation of lambda SR-mediated lysis constructs and DNA stabilizing mutations into candidate live attenuated bacterial vaccines offers a promising approach for the development of effective mucosal DNA delivery vectors for humans.

In vivo genetic analysis of bacterial virulence.

In vitro assays contribute greatly to our understanding of bacterial pathogenesis, but they frequently cannot replicate the complex environment encountered by pathogens during infection. The information gained from such studies is therefore limited. In vivo models, on the other hand, can be difficult to use, and this has to some extent diminished the incentive to perform studies in living animals. However, several recently developed techniques permit in vivo examination of many genes simultaneously. Most of these methods fall into two broad classes: in vivo expression technology and signature-tagged mutagenesis. In vivo expression technology is a promoter-trap strategy designed to identify genes whose expression is induced in a specific environment, typically that encountered in a host. Signature-tagged mutagenesis uses comparative hybridization to isolate mutants unable to survive specified environmental conditions and has been used to identify genes critical for survival in the host. Both approaches have so far been used exclusively for investigating pathogen-host interactions, but they should be easily adaptable to the study of other processes.

Lysogenic conversion of environmental Vibrio mimicus strains by CTXPhi.

The filamentous bacteriophage CTXPhi, which encodes cholera toxin (CT) in toxigenic Vibrio cholerae, is known to propagate by infecting susceptible strains of V. cholerae by using the toxin coregulated pilus (TCP) as its receptor and thereby causing the origination of new strains of toxigenic V. cholerae from nontoxigenic progenitors. Besides V. cholerae, Vibrio mimicus strains which are normally TCP negative have also been shown to occasionally produce CT and cause diarrhea in humans. We analyzed nontoxigenic V. mimicus strains isolated from surface waters in Bangladesh for susceptibility and lysogenic conversion by CTXPhi and studied the expression of CT in the lysogens by using genetically marked derivatives of the phage. Of 27 V. mimicus strains analyzed, which were all negative for genes encoding TCP but positive for the regulatory gene toxR, 2 strains (7.4%) were infected by CTX-KmPhi, derived from strain SM44(P27459 ctx::km), and the phage genome integrated into the host chromosome, forming stable lysogens. The lysogens spontaneously produced infectious phage particles in the supernatant fluids of the culture, and high titers of the phage could be achieved when the lysogens were induced with mitomycin C. This is the first demonstration of lysogenic conversion of V. mimicus strains by CTXPhi. When a genetically marked derivative of the replicative form of the CTXPhi genome carrying a functional ctxAB operon, pMSF9.2, was introduced into nontoxigenic V. mimicus strains, the plasmid integrated into the host genome and the strains produced CT both in vitro and inside the intestines of adult rabbits and caused mild-to-severe diarrhea in rabbits. This suggested that in the natural habitat infection of nontoxigenic V. mimicus strains by wild-type CTXPhi may lead to the origination of toxigenic V. mimicus strains which are capable of producing biologically active CT. The results of this study also supported the existence of a TCP-independent mechanism for infection by CTXPhi and showed that at least one species of Vibrio other than V. cholerae may contribute to the propagation of the phage.

Hyperactive transposase mutants of the Himar1 mariner transposon.

Mariner-family transposable elements are active in a wide variety of organisms and are becoming increasingly important genetic tools in species lacking sophisticated genetics. The Himar1 element, isolated from the horn fly, Haematobia irritans, is active in Escherichia coli when expressed appropriately. We used this fact to devise a genetic screen for hyperactive mutants of Himar1 transposase that enhance overall transposition from approximately 4- to 50-fold as measured in an E. coli assay. Purified mutant transposases retain their hyperactivity, although to a lesser degree, in an in vitro transposition assay. Mutants like those described herein should enable sophisticated analysis of the biochemistry of mariner transposition and should improve the use of these elements as genetic tools, both in vivo and in vitro.

Effects of changes in membrane sodium flux on virulence gene expression in Vibrio cholerae.

The expression of several virulence factors of Vibrio cholerae is coordinately regulated by the ToxT molecule and the membrane proteins TcpP/H and ToxR/S, which are required for toxT transcription. To identify proteins that negatively affect toxT transcription, we screened transposon mutants of V. cholerae carrying a chromosomally integrated toxT::lacZ reporter construct for darker blue colonies on media containing 5-bromo-4-chlor-3-indolyl beta-D galactoside (X-gal). Two mutants had transposon insertions in a region homologous to the nqr gene cluster of Vibrio alginolyticus, encoding a sodium-translocating NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase (NQR). In V. alginolyticus, NQR is a respiration-linked Na+ extrusion pump generating a sodium motive force that can be used for solute import, ATP synthesis, and flagella rotation. Inhibition of NQR enzyme function in V. cholerae by the specific inhibitor 2-n-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline N-oxide (HQNO) resulted in elevated toxT::lacZ activity. Increased toxT::lacZ expression in an nqr mutant strain compared with the parental strain was observed when the TcpP/H molecules alone were strongly expressed, suggesting that the negative effect of the NQR complex on toxT transcription is mediated through TcpP/H. However, the ability of the TcpP/H proteins to activate the toxT::lacZ reporter construct was greatly diminished in the presence of high NaCl concentrations in the growth medium. The flagellar motor of V. cholerae appears to be driven by a sodium motive force, and modulation of flagella rotation by inhibitory drugs, high media viscosity, or specific mutations resulted in increases of toxT::lacZ expression. Thus, the regulation of the main virulence factors of V. cholerae appears to be modulated by endogenous and exogenous sodium levels in a complex way.

In vivo transposition of mariner-based elements in enteric bacteria and mycobacteria.

mariner family transposons are widespread among eukaryotic organisms. These transposons are apparently horizontally transmitted among diverse eukaryotes and can also transpose in vitro in the absence of added cofactors. Here we show that transposons derived from the mariner element Himar1 can efficiently transpose in bacteria in vivo. We have developed simple transposition systems by using minitransposons, made up of short inverted repeats flanking antibiotic resistance markers. These elements can efficiently transpose after expression of transposase from an appropriate bacterial promoter. We found that transposition of mariner-based elements in Escherichia coli produces diverse insertion mutations in either a targeted plasmid or a chromosomal gene. With Himar1-derived transposons we were able to isolate phage-resistant mutants of both E. coli and Mycobacterium smegmatis. mariner-based transposons will provide valuable tools for mutagenesis and genetic manipulation of bacteria that currently lack well developed genetic systems.