Hidden diversity of cestodes in wild African carnivores: I. Non-taeniid cyclophyllideans.

Our knowledge of parasites in wildlife remains limited, primarily due to restricted access to samples, especially of parasites from protected species. This present study contributes to the comprehension of the enigmatic world of helminths of African wild mammals and cestode biodiversity by combining both molecular and morphological analysis. Cestode samples were opportunistically collected from 77 individual definitive hosts in South Africa, Namibia and Ethiopia, encompassing 15 different species of wild African carnivores and additionally domestic cats. The analysis revealed 32 different cyclophyllidean species of which 21 (65.6 %) represent previously unknown genetic entities. They belong to the families Mesocestoididae, Hymenolepididae, Dipylidiidae and Taeniidae. Here we cover the non-taeniid cestodes, while the taeniids will be addressed in a separate publication. Three of the non-taeniid species uncovered in this study could be assigned to the genus Mesocestoides and were isolated from servals and domestic cats. The white-tailed mongoose was found to be a suitable host for a species belonging to the Hymenolepididae, which was identified as Pseudandrya cf. mkuzii. Both feline and canine genotypes of Dipylidium caninum were detected in domestic cats, the canine genotype also in an African wolf. In addition to these, a novel species of Dipylidium was discovered in an aardwolf. Lastly, four distinct species of Joyeuxiella were found in this study, revealing a cryptic species complex and emphasizing the need for a taxonomic reassessment of this genus. Despite the limited scope of our study in terms of geography and sample size, the results highlight that biodiversity of cestodes in African wild mammals is grossly under-researched and follow-up studies are urgently required, in particular linking morphology to gene sequences.

Effect of the enhancing nutrition and antenatal infection treatment (ENAT) intervention on birth weight in Ethiopia: a cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The Enhancing Nutrition and Antenatal Infection Treatment (ENAT) intervention was implemented in Ethiopia to improve newborn birth weight (BW) by strengthening the contents and quality of antenatal care (ANC), especially point-of-care testing for maternal infections. This study examined the effect of the ENAT intervention on birth weight. METHODS: We conducted a cluster randomized controlled trial of 22 clusters (health centers), randomized equally between 11 intervention and 11 control clusters. This study enrolled and followed pregnant women from ANC booking to the end of pregnancy or loss to follow-up. The primary outcome was mean BW, and the incidence of low birth weight (LBW) was the secondary outcome. We presented univariate comparisons of outcomes between the intervention and control arms for mean BW and LBW. Multilevel analyses using random effects models were performed to adjust for clustering and individual-level covariates. RESULTS: We enrolled and followed up 4,868 and 4,821 pregnant women in the intervention and control arms, respectively, from March 2021-July 2022. During follow-up, 3445 pregnant women in the intervention and 3192 in the control delivered in the health centers, and BW measurements of their babies were recorded within 48 h. The mean BW was 3,152 g (standard deviation (SD) = 339.8 g) in the intervention and 3,044 g (SD = 353.8 g) in the control arms (mean difference, 108 g; 95% confidence interval (CI): 91.3-124.6; P = 0.000). Adjusting for clustering and several covariates, the mean BW remained significantly higher in the intervention arm than in the control arm (adjusted ß coef., 114.3; p = 0.011). The incidence of LBW was 4.7% and 7.3% in the intervention and control arms, respectively. The adjusted risk of LBW was significantly lower by 36% in the intervention arm than in the control arm (adjusted relative risk, 0.645; p = 0.027). CONCLUSION: This study provided sufficient evidence of the effectiveness of the ENAT intervention in improving birth weight in the study population. The intervention demonstrated that an increase in birth weight can be attained by availing point-of-care testing, strengthening infection prevention, and maternal nutrition within the ANC platform of public health facilities in a low-income setting. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registered at Pan African Clinical Trial Registry (PACTR) database dated 09/05/2023, https://pactr.samrc.ac.za/TrialDisplay.aspx?TrialID=25493 . The unique identification number for the registry is PACTR202305694761480.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis in central Ethiopia: drug sensitivity patterns and association with genotype.

Drug resistance tuberculosis (TB) and the emergence of multidrug resistant (MDR) isolates are significant concerns regarding TB control programs in several countries. This study was undertaken to evaluate the drug sensitivity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and to assess its association with strains and lineages of M. tuberculosis. A total of 279 M. tuberculosis strains isolated from Central Ethiopia were tested for their drug sensitivity patterns to first line TB drugs using the conventional proportion method on Löwenstein Jensen media. The association between drug sensitivity and strain type was assessed on 263 isolates of the 279 isolates. Of the 268 M. tuberculosis isolates obtained from new cases, 209 (78%) were susceptible to first line TB drugs, and 59 (22.2%) bacterial isolates were resistant to at least one of the first line drugs. The highest mono-resistance (7.5%) pertained to streptomycin (STM). Remarkably, seven of eleven isolates (63.6%) previous treatment for TB were resistant to at least one of the first line drugs. The prevalence of MDR-TB was 1.5% (4/268) for newly identified TB cases, all of which were members of the Euro-American Lineage. There was no statistically significant association (P > 0.05) between drug sensitivity, and either strains, sub-lineages or main lineages of M. tuberculosis. A significant proportion of M. tuberculosis was resistant to at least one first line anti-TB drug. Moreover, the frequencies of resistance to either isoniazid or rifampicin were high compared to data that were previously reported in some part of the country.

Risk of tuberculous infection in adolescents and adults in a rural community in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in sub-Saharan Africa is one of the highest in the world. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence of TB, the annual risk of tuberculous infection (ARTI) and associated risk factors in rural Ethiopia. METHODS: A tuberculin skin test was performed among 2743 individuals in a rural community of Ethiopia around Ginci town, west of Addis Ababa, to estimate the prevalence of tuberculin reactivity and to assess factors associated with tuberculous infection. RESULTS: Among 2743 volunteer participants, test results were available for 2640, 691 (26.2%) of whom had an identifiable bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) scar; 221 (8.3%) reported household contact with a known TB case. The overall prevalence of TST reactions of ⩾ 10 mm was 29.7%. The ARTI was estimated at 1.7%. Tuberculin reactivity varied with age, sex, income and history of household contact with a TB case. Presence of BCG scar was not related to tuberculin reactivity. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that despite an effective TB control programme, TB transmission rates are still high in rural Ethiopia. Provision of isoniazid prophylaxis in close contacts of active TB cases among the poorest population groups may reduce TB incidence.

Changing risk of environmental Campylobacter exposure with emerging poultry production systems in Ethiopia.

Campylobacter is a leading cause of diarrhoea, and its presence in chickens is a significant risk for zoonotic infection. Poultry production is becoming increasingly intensive in Ethiopia and is incorporating more high-producing breeds into traditionally managed smallholdings, especially in peri-urban areas. This cross-sectional study sampled 219 household environments in one peri-urban and two rural areas of Ethiopia, and an additional 20 semi-intensive farms in the peri-urban district. Campylobacter was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-specific assays in 44 samples; 16 of which could be identified as C. jejuni. Flocks in the peri-urban area were at significantly greater odds of detection, including those which only kept indigenous birds under a scavenging system. It was also noted that scavenging flocks of exotic high-production birds (Rhode Island Red) were at slightly greater risk, perhaps as exotic birds are under more stress when kept under traditional management systems. We suggest that changes to the system of chicken production may alter the ecology and epidemiology of Campylobacter in the environment, chickens and people, which may drive emergence of new epidemiological patterns of disease. Further research is needed to determine the extent to which the current management intensification and the distribution programmes of exotic and/or improved indigenous birds may alter Campylobacter epidemiology, ecology and public health risk, before their widespread adoption.

In vivo and in vitro hypotensive effect of aqueous extract of Moringa stenopetala.

BACKGROUND: Moringa stenopetala, Baker f. (Moringaceae) is used for food and medicine in Southern Ethiopia. OBJECTIVE: To substantiate the hypotensive effect of M. stenopetala in vivo and in vitro. METHODS: An in vivo experiment was carried out on male guinea pigs anaesthetized with pentobarbital. The arterial blood pressure was recorded from a carotid artery filled with heparinized saline via an arterial cannula connected to a pressure transducer. For the in vitro experiment the descending thoracic aorta was removed and kept moistened in Krebs-Henseleit solution and then mounted in a 20ml tissue bath maintained at 37°C and bubbled with a mixture of 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide. RESULTS: Crude aqueous leaf extract of M. stenopetala caused significant fall in systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) at doses of 10, 20, 30 and 40 mg/kg in normotensive anaesthetized guinea pigs (n = 12). The effect might have been mediated by non-autonomic nervous system as the effect is not altered by atropine and propranolol. The extract also caused significant dose and time dependent inhibition of K(+) induced contraction on guinea pig aorta. CONCLUSION: M.stenopetala has blood pressure lowering effect substantiating the use of the plant in traditional medicine.

Programmatic Correlates of Maternal Healthcare Seeking Behaviors in Ethiopia

Background: Considerable improvement in maternal healthcare use has been observed since the inception of the health extension program (HEP) in Ethiopia in 2003. Objective: This paper evaluates the influence of HEP outreach strategies on maternal healthcare use. Method: Cross-sectional survey of 2;916 women with children 0 to 11 months from Amhara; Oromiya; Southern Nations; Nationalities and People's; and Tigray regions; obtained between December 2008 and January 2009; were analyzed using regression models to assess the impacts of HEP strategies on maternal health outcomes. Result: The analyses found that communities (i.e.; kebeles) with relatively high prevalence of model families; higher rate of household visits by health extension workers; and higher rate of household visits by voluntary community health workers were associated with improved antenatal care use; tetanus toxoid vaccination coverage; and receiving postnatal care visits; but the strategies were not associated with deliveries attended by health professionals. Conclusion: Although the impacts of HEP strategies on maternal healthcare use were statistically significant; they were not optimum to reach the maternal mortality reduction targets of the government of Ethiopia. The HEP needs to review and strengthen its community based strategies in order to reach its goals

In Vivo Anti-Malarial Activities of Clerodendrum Myricoides; Dodonea Angustifolia and Aloe Debrana against Plasmodium Berghei

Background:Malaria caused by the parasite Plasmodium falciparum is an acute disease which kills an estimated 863;000 people per year according to the WHO report of 2009. The fight against malaria is faced with the occurrence of widespread resistance of P. falciparum. The search for plant-derived antimalarial drugs has great importance in this regard. Thus this study evaluates the toxicity and antimalarial activity of extracts of Clerodendrum myricoides; Dodonia angustifolia and Aloe debrana. Method: Acute and sub acute toxicity studies of the extracts were carried out by giving up to 3000mg/kg to noninfected mice. Weight loss; change in general behavior and mortality were used as indicators of toxicity. Doses of 200; 400 et 600mg/kg/day of each extract of C.myricoides; D. dodonia and A.debrana were given orally to Plasmodium berghei infected mice following the four-day suppressive test procedure. Results: None of the extracts caused symptoms of toxicity at the given doses. Each extract showed variable level of parasitaemia suppression in dose related manner. Methanol extract of C. myricoides leaves exerted 82.50suppression at the dose of 600mg/kg. The methanol extract of the root of D. angustifolia showed the highest (84.52) suppression of parasitaemia at the dose of 600mg/kg. Furthermore; methanol extract of A. debrana induced 73.95suppression; whereas its water extract exerted 54.36suppression of parasitaemia. Conclusion: Crude extracts of C. myricoides; D. angustifolia and A.debrana caused strong activities against P. berghei indicating that they contain some chemical constituents that possibly lead to antimalarial drug development

Levels of Outpatient Satisfaction at Selected Health Facilities in Six Regions of Ethiopia

Background: Satisfaction is one of the meaningful indicators of patient experience of health care services. Asking patients what they think about the care and treatment they have received is an important step towards improving the quality of care; and to ensuring that local health services are meeting patients' needs. Various studies have reported that satisfied patients are more likely to utilize health services; comply with medical treatment; and continue with the health care provider. Objective: to assess and estimate the perceived levels of satisfaction with health services rendered at government health facilities in selected regions of Ethiopia. Methods: A cross-sectional study that involved an exit interview was conducted in purposively selected government health centers and general hospitals in six regions of Ethiopia. Data were collected using structured questionnaire between June and September 2004. Variables used in the study were grouped and summarized into three components; namely providers' characteristics; services characteristics and cleanliness of the health facilities. Each variable was scored on a 5 point Likert-like scale; ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). The mean score 2.5 is considered as a cut-off point and scores equal and above 2.5 are taken as an indicator of users' perceived satisfaction. Both bivariate and multivariate methods of data analyses were used as deemed necessary. Results: All the three components of investigated variables have reliability coefficients ranging from 0.57 to 0.82. Results of bivariate analyses depicted that the percentage for high mean score satisfaction with health providers' characteristics ranged from 77.25to 93.23; with service characteristics 68.64to 86.48; and satisfaction with cleanliness ranged from 76.50to 90.57. Results of multivariate analysis showed that relatively more explanatory variables were found to be significant ininfluencing cleanliness (cleanliness of waiting place; examination room and medical equipment). Most of the explanatory variables in service characteristics were not statistically significant as compared to other components. Conclusion: The investigators believe that improved service delivery in health facilities could be achieved by to proper and sustainable implementation of the newly initiated civil service reform program in civil service institutionsin the country. Furthermore; periodic assessment of health services and further study; especially from the user's satisfaction perspective is recommended as a fundamental initiative in the improvement of the performance of health facilities

Seasonal and altitudinal variations in fly density and their association with the occurrence of trachoma, in the Gurage zone of central Ethiopia.

In the Gurage zone of central Ethiopia, the association between fly density and the occurrence of trachoma has been investigated across varying altitudes. The seasonal pattern of fly density in the area was also explored. When, over short sampling periods (10 min/child indoors and 10 min/child outdoors), hand nets were used to collect flies from the eyes of children aged 2-8 years, only Musca sorbens and M. domestica were caught. Almost all of the 13,147 'eye-seeking' flies collected came from villages at low (<2000 m; 40.7%) or mid altitudes (2200-2500 m; 58.6%) with only 0.7% of them caught in the high-altitude villages investigated (at >3000 m). Musca sorbens predominated outdoors and M. domestica indoors. Almost all (99.3%) of the eye-seeking M. sorbens collected were caught outdoors whereas most (76.7%) of the M. domestica were caught indoors (P<0.0001 for each). The median numbers of flies caught, per child, per 10-min collection, in the low-, mid- and high-altitude villages were 9.5, six and zero, respectively, for M. sorbens, and eight, three and zero, respectively, for M. domestica. The altitudinal trends in these numbers of 'eye-seeking' flies matched those in the prevalences of active trachoma among children aged 1-10 years, which were high in the villages at low (81.6%) and mid altitude (78.7%) but much lower (1.7%) in the high-altitude villages. In conclusion, trachoma is a common disease of public-health importance only in the low- and mid-altitude villages in the Gurage zone, where there are large numbers of eye-seeking flies, and not in the villages that lie >3000 m above sea level, where there is a dearth of such flies.

Pesticide use on agricultural fields and health problems in various activities.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the health status, attitude and level of awareness of safe pesticide handling practices of farm workers engaged in the application of pesticides on agricultural farms. DESIGN: Cross sectional study. SETTING: Two farms in northwest Ethiopia, 2004. SUBJECTS: Farm workers of job categories; sprayers, pest assessors, supervisors, spraymachine mechanics and tractor operators. RESULTS: The farm workers had respiratory symptoms of cough, phlegm and wheezing. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures did not show abnormalities. Liver function tests showed elevated values. Respiratory symptoms in the farm workers revealed that cough phlegm and wheezing at Ayehu farm were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the controls. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) at Birr Farm in the sprayers and mechanics were significantly higher than the controls (p < 0.05). The ALP value in the sprayers, glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT) in the assessors and glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) in the sprayers and mechanics at Ayehu were significantly higher than the controls (p < 0.05). From a total of 82 farm workers 35.7% at Birr and 75% at Ayehu Farm described that they were not formally instructed about safe pesticide handling methods. CONCLUSION: The farm workers health is affected by the unwise use of pesticides. The level of awareness and attitude on safe pesticide handling practices is low. It is recommended that appropriate type of personal protective device (PPD), in service training about the proper use of chemical pesticides and periodic medical check-up should be fulfilled to minimise the adverse health effects of chemical pesticides.

In vivo antimalarial activity of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum on mice infected with Plasmodium berghei.

The essential oils obtained by hydrodistillation from fresh leaves of Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum growing in Cameroon were analyzed by GC and GC/MS. The main constituents of the oil of Ocimum gratissimum were gamma-terpinene (21.9 %), beta-phellandrene (21.1 %), limonene (11.4 %) and thymol (11.2 %), while the oil of Cymbopogon citratus contained geranial (32.8 %), neral (29.0 %), myrcene (16.2 %) and beta-pinene (10.5 %). The effects of these oils on the growth of Plasmodium berghei were investigated. Both oils showed significant antimalarial activities in the four-day suppressive in vivo test in mice. At concentrations of 200, 300 and 500 mg/kg of mouse per day, the essential oil of C. citratus produced the highest activity with the respective percentages of suppression of parasitaemia: 62.1 %, 81.7 % and 86.6 %. The corresponding values for the oil of O. gratissimum at the same concentrations were 55.0 %, 75.2 % and 77.8 %, respectively. Chloroquine (10 mg/kg of mouse, positive control) had a suppressive activity of 100 %.

Pesticide sprayers' knowledge, attitude and practice of pesticide use on agricultural farms of Ethiopia.

Pesticide sprayers from five state-owned agricultural farms took part in a study that evaluated their knowledge, attitude and practice of pesticide use on farms. Demographic features of the sprayers showed that the majority of them had primary-level education. The duration of work as sprayers on the farms ranged from 1 month to approximately 10 years, with 59% of them having worked as sprayers for <5 years. Their knowledge about hazards from pesticides was indicated by the responses they gave to the standard questionnaire. Careful working was considered to be very important by 93% of them, while only 7% suggested the use of personal protective devices (PPD). On some of the farms, sprayers were provided with inappropriate/unfit and worn-out PPD; 18% of the sprayers had unfit goggles and 29% used worn-out gloves. To minimize risk from pesticide application, 63% suggested avoiding applications during windy and sunny weather, 32% suggested the provision and proper use of PPD, while only 3% of them felt medical check-ups and training were important, and 2% suggested risks from spraying were best controlled by leaving their job. The hygiene and sanitation practices of the sprayers require much improvement. An attitudinal change is needed, together with the provision of better facilities and infrastructure. We recommend that pesticide safety education be given to the sprayers. In addition, appropriate PPD should be used, with regular maintenance and timely replacement of worn-out parts.

Low incidence of syphilis among factory workers in Ethiopia: effect of an intervention based on education and counselling.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence and incidence of syphilis infection were examined in a cohort study of factory workers in Ethiopia. METHOD: Between February 1997 and March 1999, 409 men and 348 women were enrolled and followed in the cohort study. RESULTS: The prevalence (95% CI) of past/current syphilis (positive TPPA serology) was 28.9% (25.7% to 32.3%), and factors associated with past/current syphilis were markers of risky sexual behaviours including HIV infection. In this cohort of factory workers subject to public information/education meetings, testing for HIV antibodies, and individual counselling, the incidence (97.5% one sided CI) of new syphilis infections was 0/691 = 0 (0 to 0.5) per 100 person years. CONCLUSION: This study has documented a reduction in risky sexual behaviours and a low syphilis incidence among factory workers participating in a cohort study on HIV infection progression in Addis Ababa.

The cost of integrating hepatitis B virus vaccine into national immunization programmes: a case study from Addis Ababa.

National programmes of hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccination are recommended by the World Health Organization for all countries. Countries suffering the highest burden of HBV disease are those most needy of universal vaccination, but are frequently of very low income and resources for health care are scarce. The introduction of HBV vaccination would inevitably stretch these resources further even with support of donor agencies. Thus an assessment of the cost-effectiveness of HBV vaccination is desirable to assist in decision making about resource allocation. We describe here a method for estimating the additional costs of introducing HBV vaccination into the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) at a national level. Of fundamental importance is that this method enables costs to be assessed prior to the introduction of vaccination. We illustrate the method using a study carried out at the sub-national level, in the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, but which can be expanded countrywide. The method, in brief, involved the use of a number of questionnaires which could be used to estimate the costs associated with the EPI programme from a large sample of the static clinics as well as from central sources. Since unit costs were collected along with the quantities of resources used and estimates of the capacity used for certain facilities (such as refrigerators), the additional cost of introducing HBV vaccine could be estimated largely by extrapolation of the resources used in vaccinating against diphtheria/pertussis/tetanus vaccine (which, similar to HBV vaccine, requires three doses). The estimation of costs is only part of the information required to make decisions on resource allocation, and should be used in association with measures of the burden of disease due to the infection in the community and effectiveness of the control programme at reducing this burden. The prediction of the latter, based upon a sound epidemiological understanding of the infection, is the subject of a forthcoming paper.

Prevalence of bacterial pathogens in children with acute respiratory infection in Addis Ababa.

A study was conducted in the Ethio-Swedish Children's Hospital and different schools and kindergartens in Addis Ababa to determine the prevalence of bacterial agents that are associated with acute respiratory infection in children from 1998-1999. A total of 883 subjects were studied, out of which 77% were cases from the Ethio-Swedish Children's Hospital and 23% were controls from different schools and kindergartens. From each case and control throat and nasopharyngeal specimens were collected. Culture and different biochemical tests were used to isolate the potential bacterial pathogens. Clinical findings like cough, difficult breathing and fever were correlated with laboratory findings. S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae type b were the most commonly isolated bacteria in both throat and nasopharyngeal specimens; 74% and 70% in the cases and 2% and 5% in the control groups, respectively. This paper discusses the association between throat and nasopharyngeal carriership of bacteria and acute respiratory infection in children in Addis Ababa.

In vitro antitrypanosomal activity of Moringa stenopetala leaves and roots.

The leaves and the root extracts of Moringa stenopetala were tested in vitro against trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi and L. donovani amastigotes. The fresh root wood ethanol extract and the dried leaves acetone extract were found to be active against T. brucei with an ED(50) value of 9.2 microg/mL and 10.0 microg/mL respectively. All the other extracts were inactive against all the tested parasite forms.

Effects of ethanol extract of Moringa stenopetala leaves on guinea-pig and mouse smooth muscle.

The fresh leaf ethanol (LE) extract of Moringa stenopetala was tested in guinea-pig ileum and mouse duodenum and in uterus strips. There were significant dose and time dependent reductions of the acetylcholine (AC) response with initial stimulatory effects in both the guinea-pig ileum and the mouse duodenum preparations. Spontaneous rhythmic contractions were greatly reduced, suggesting an antispasmodic property of the crude LE extract. The LE extract showed some oxytocic activity on uterus strips of guinea-pigs and mice. The results are indicative of the traditional use of the leaves of Moringa stenopetala for stomach pain and to expel retained placentae by women.

The health status of northern Omo State Farm workers exposed to chlorpyrifos and profenofos.

The health effects of organophosphorus (OP) pesticides on cholinesterase (ChE) activities were assessed among 81 pest control workers from Northern Omo State Farm (Ethiopia), following the occupational use of Chlorpyrifos 25 and 48% ULV and Profenifos 250 EC/ULV. Plasma ChE (PChE) and erythrocyte ChE (AChE) activities were determined electrometrically before and after pesticide exposure. Plasma alkaline phosphatase (AP) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) values were estimated colorimetrically. Risk factors of pesticide poisoning and related occupational factors were assessed following the WHO recommendations. The mean PChE and AChE activities determined after pesticide exposures were significantly lower than the pre-exposure values (P < 0.05); 16% and 40% of the pest control workers had PChE and AChE levels below 50% of the pre-exposure values, respectively. The mean plasma AP and GPT values were found to be within the recommended normal limits. No significant difference in either of the ChE activities was observed between the spray men and the pest assessors, although the former were believed to have frequent contact with the concentrated OP formulations. Risk factors of pesticide poisoning such as workers ignorance about the toxicity of pesticides, poor personal hygiene and total absence or improper use of personal protective devices were prevalent. Measures that should be considered to minimize the problem in the farm population are recommended.