Germline NPM1 mutations lead to altered rRNA 2'-O-methylation and cause dyskeratosis congenita.

RNA modifications are emerging as key determinants of gene expression. However, compelling genetic demonstrations of their relevance to human disease are lacking. Here, we link ribosomal RNA 2'-O-methylation (2'-O-Me) to the etiology of dyskeratosis congenita. We identify nucleophosmin (NPM1) as an essential regulator of 2'-O-Me on rRNA by directly binding C/D box small nucleolar RNAs, thereby modulating translation. We demonstrate the importance of 2'-O-Me-regulated translation for cellular growth, differentiation and hematopoietic stem cell maintenance, and show that Npm1 inactivation in adult hematopoietic stem cells results in bone marrow failure. We identify NPM1 germline mutations in patients with dyskeratosis congenita presenting with bone marrow failure and demonstrate that they are deficient in small nucleolar RNA binding. Mice harboring a dyskeratosis congenita germline Npm1 mutation recapitulate both hematological and nonhematological features of dyskeratosis congenita. Thus, our findings indicate that impaired 2'-O-Me can be etiological to human disease.

AGO CLIP Reveals an Activated Network for Acute Regulation of Brain Glutamate Homeostasis in Ischemic Stroke.

Post-transcriptional regulation by microRNAs (miRNAs) is essential for complex molecular responses to physiological insult and disease. Although many disease-associated miRNAs are known, their global targets and culminating network effects on pathophysiology remain poorly understood. We applied Argonaute (AGO) crosslinking immunoprecipitation (CLIP) to systematically elucidate altered miRNA-target interactions in brain following ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury. Among 1,190 interactions identified, the most prominent was the cumulative loss of target regulation by miR-29 family members. Integration of translational and time-course RNA profiles revealed a dynamic mode of miR-29 target de-regulation, led by acute translational activation and a later increase in RNA levels, allowing rapid proteomic changes to take effect. These functional regulatory events rely on canonical and non-canonical miR-29 binding and engage glutamate reuptake signals, such as glial glutamate transporter (GLT-1), to control local glutamate levels. These results uncover a miRNA target network that acts acutely to maintain brain homeostasis after ischemic stroke.

Ultraviolet (UV) Cross-Linking of Live Cells, Lysate Preparation, and RNase Titration for Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP).

One of the great advantages of RNA CLIP (cross-linking immunoprecipitation) is that RNA-protein complexes can be "frozen" in situ in live cells by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. This protocol describes UV cross-linking of mammalian tissue culture cells or whole tissues. For the latter, the tissue is typically triturated to allow UV penetration. However, depending on the thickness of the chosen tissue, this may not be necessary. It is preferable to handle the tissue as little as possible, to keep it in ice-cold buffers, and to cross-link as soon after the time of collection as is feasible to preserve native interactions at the time of cross-linking. This protocol also describes cell lysis following cross-linking, as well as treatment with RNase to partially hydrolyze the bound RNA. The first time this protocol is performed, a pilot experiment should be performed to determine the optimal RNase concentration for the particular sample. Once the RNase conditions are optimized this section of CLIP protocol can be repeated on experimental samples before proceeding through the rest of the protocol.

Immunoprecipitation and SDS-PAGE for Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP).

This first part of this protocol is designed to optimize purification of the RNABP by immunoprecipitation for cross-linking immunoprecipitation (CLIP) experiments. The key variables to assess are the quality and quantity of antibody needed to immunoprecipitate most but not quite all of the RNABP (the titration will decrease nonspecific binding), and the tolerance of the antibody:antigen interaction to stringent wash conditions. The results of these experiments can be checked first by western blot, and subsequently using the pilot CLIP protocol described in the second half of this protocol. RNase-treated cross-linked RNABP:RNA complexes from mixed lysates or cell pellets are immunoprecipitated using conditions optimized in the first half of the protocol. 3' Linkers are added, the RNA is radiolabeled, and the complexes are purified on SDS-PAGE. The pilot experiment will identify the optimal RNase concentration for the particular sample and will assess the quality and purity of the RNABP-RNA complexes following labeling of the RNA tags with 32P. This can be done without ligation of the 3' linker as described in the main protocol below. The pilot experiment assesses whether sufficient RNA-protein complexes can be detected by autoradiography and whether contaminating RNA ligands are present in immunoprecipitations compared with control samples. Once it is confirmed that the signal-to-noise ratio for detection of RNA-protein complexes after immunoprecipitation is sufficient, the optimal immunoprecipitation conditions should be incorporated into the general CLIP protocol including the steps of cross-linking, RNase digestion, linker ligation, and labeling of RNA "tags," and the results analyzed by autoradiography.

3'-Linker Ligation and Size Selection by SDS-PAGE for Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP).

This protocol describes the purification by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of RNA linkers for cross-linking immunoprecipitation (CLIP). Purification is necessary because if the 3' linker loses the puromycin blocking group, concatemerization of the 3' linker will occur during the 3' linker ligation reaction. In addition, truncated linkers make bioinformatic processing of the sequencing results more difficult than it need be. Additionally, this protocol describes the treatment of coimmunoprecipitated RNA tags for CLIP with alkaline phosphatase to remove the 3' phosphate remaining after RNase digestion. Dephosphorylation prevents intramolecular circularization of RNA during subsequent ligation to the linker. The purified RNA linker, blocked with puromycin at its 3' end to prevent linker-linker multimerization, is then ligated to the 3' end of the RNA tag. Removal of free linker is accomplished by performing the ligation while the RNABP:RNA complex is associated, via antibody, to protein A Dynabeads, allowing thorough washing and linker removal. Additional purification is achieved by SDS-PAGE and transfer of the size-selected RNABP:RNA complexes to nitrocellulose.

Isolation of the RNA Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP) Tags, 5'-Linker Ligation, Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) Amplification, and Sequencing.

This protocol describes purification of RNA cross-linking immunoprecipitation (CLIP) tags by proteinase K digestion of the cross-linked protein, addition of a 5' linker to the RNA tags, and amplification of the product by transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Use of this protocol adds another important purification step: sizing of the PCR products to enrich for those derived from RNA originally cross-linked to the desired RNABP. Finally, sequencing of the PCR products is described. There are two strategies for sequencing the PCR products of "CLIPed" RNA. Low-throughput sequencing involves cloning of PCR products, conventional minipreps, and sequencing. This can be performed on the PCR products generated here using standard protocols for A-tailing the PCR product and TA-cloning. This may be a worthwhile strategy when analyzing a small number of clones. In general, particularly in light of falling costs, high-throughput sequencing is the preferred method for sequencing the products of CLIPed RNA. This protocol describes a method for reamplifying PCR products with primers suitable for use on Illumina's Solexa platform. Although this protocol is specific to the Illumina deep-sequencing platform, similar schemes for reamplification of the initial PCR products can be used to add platform-specific sequences to the termini of the PCR-amplified DNA.

Mapping of In Vivo RNA-Binding Sites by Ultraviolet (UV)-Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP).

RNA "CLIP" (cross-linking immunoprecipitation), the method by which RNA-protein complexes are covalently cross-linked and purified and the RNA sequenced, has attracted attention as a powerful means of developing genome-wide maps of direct, functional RNA-protein interaction sites. These maps have been used to identify points of regulation, and they hold promise for understanding the dynamics of RNA regulation in normal cell function and its dysregulation in disease.

PAPERCLIP Identifies MicroRNA Targets and a Role of CstF64/64tau in Promoting Non-canonical poly(A) Site Usage.

Accurate and precise annotation of 3' UTRs is critical for understanding how mRNAs are regulated by microRNAs (miRNAs) and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). Here, we describe a method, poly(A) binding protein-mediated mRNA 3' end retrieval by crosslinking immunoprecipitation (PAPERCLIP), that shows high specificity for mRNA 3' ends and compares favorably with existing 3' end mapping methods. PAPERCLIP uncovers a previously unrecognized role of CstF64/64tau in promoting the usage of a selected group of non-canonical poly(A) sites, the majority of which contain a downstream GUKKU motif. Furthermore, in the mouse brain, PAPERCLIP discovers extended 3' UTR sequences harboring functional miRNA binding sites and reveals developmentally regulated APA shifts, including one in Atp2b2 that is evolutionarily conserved in humans and results in the gain of a functional binding site of miR-137. PAPERCLIP provides a powerful tool to decipher post-transcriptional regulation of mRNAs through APA in vivo.

A majority of m6A residues are in the last exons, allowing the potential for 3' UTR regulation.

We adapted UV CLIP (cross-linking immunoprecipitation) to accurately locate tens of thousands of m(6)A residues in mammalian mRNA with single-nucleotide resolution. More than 70% of these residues are present in the 3'-most (last) exons, with a very sharp rise (sixfold) within 150-400 nucleotides of the start of the last exon. Two-thirds of last exon m(6)A and >40% of all m(6)A in mRNA are present in 3' untranslated regions (UTRs); contrary to earlier suggestions, there is no preference for location of m(6)A sites around stop codons. Moreover, m(6)A is significantly higher in noncoding last exons than in next-to-last exons harboring stop codons. We found that m(6)A density peaks early in the 3' UTR and that, among transcripts with alternative polyA (APA) usage in both the brain and the liver, brain transcripts preferentially use distal polyA sites, as reported, and also show higher proximal m(6)A density in the last exons. Furthermore, when we reduced m6A methylation by knocking down components of the methylase complex and then examined 661 transcripts with proximal m6A peaks in last exons, we identified a set of 111 transcripts with altered (approximately two-thirds increased proximal) APA use. Taken together, these observations suggest a role of m(6)A modification in regulating proximal alternative polyA choice.

Hepatitis C virus RNA functionally sequesters miR-122.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) uniquely requires the liver-specific microRNA-122 for replication, yet global effects on endogenous miRNA targets during infection are unexplored. Here, high-throughput sequencing and crosslinking immunoprecipitation (HITS-CLIP) experiments of human Argonaute (AGO) during HCV infection showed robust AGO binding on the HCV 5'UTR at known and predicted miR-122 sites. On the human transcriptome, we observed reduced AGO binding and functional mRNA de-repression of miR-122 targets during virus infection. This miR-122 "sponge" effect was relieved and redirected to miR-15 targets by swapping the miRNA tropism of the virus. Single-cell expression data from reporters containing miR-122 sites showed significant de-repression during HCV infection depending on expression level and site number. We describe a quantitative mathematical model of HCV-induced miR-122 sequestration and propose that such miR-122 inhibition by HCV RNA may result in global de-repression of host miR-122 targets, providing an environment fertile for the long-term oncogenic potential of HCV.

Loss of the multifunctional RNA-binding protein RBM47 as a source of selectable metastatic traits in breast cancer.

The mechanisms through which cancer cells lock in altered transcriptional programs in support of metastasis remain largely unknown. Through integrative analysis of clinical breast cancer gene expression datasets, cell line models of breast cancer progression, and mutation data from cancer genome resequencing studies, we identified RNA binding motif protein 47 (RBM47) as a suppressor of breast cancer progression and metastasis. RBM47 inhibited breast cancer re-initiation and growth in experimental models. Transcriptome-wide HITS-CLIP analysis revealed widespread RBM47 binding to mRNAs, most prominently in introns and 3'UTRs. RBM47 altered splicing and abundance of a subset of its target mRNAs. Some of the mRNAs stabilized by RBM47, as exemplified by dickkopf WNT signaling pathway inhibitor 1, inhibit tumor progression downstream of RBM47. Our work identifies RBM47 as an RNA-binding protein that can suppress breast cancer progression and demonstrates how the inactivation of a broadly targeted RNA chaperone enables selection of a pro-metastatic state.

HITS-CLIP and integrative modeling define the Rbfox splicing-regulatory network linked to brain development and autism.

The RNA binding proteins Rbfox1/2/3 regulate alternative splicing in the nervous system, and disruption of Rbfox1 has been implicated in autism. However, comprehensive identification of functional Rbfox targets has been challenging. Here, we perform HITS-CLIP for all three Rbfox family members in order to globally map, at a single-nucleotide resolution, their in vivo RNA interaction sites in the mouse brain. We find that the two guanines in the Rbfox binding motif UGCAUG are critical for protein-RNA interactions and crosslinking. Using integrative modeling, these interaction sites, combined with additional datasets, define 1,059 direct Rbfox target alternative splicing events. Over half of the quantifiable targets show dynamic changes during brain development. Of particular interest are 111 events from 48 candidate autism-susceptibility genes, including syndromic autism genes Shank3, Cacna1c, and Tsc2. Alteration of Rbfox targets in some autistic brains is correlated with downregulation of all three Rbfox proteins, supporting the potential clinical relevance of the splicing-regulatory network.

Mapping Argonaute and conventional RNA-binding protein interactions with RNA at single-nucleotide resolution using HITS-CLIP and CIMS analysis.

The identification of sites where RNA-binding proteins (RNABPs) interact with target RNAs opens the door to understanding the vast complexity of RNA regulation. UV cross-linking and immunoprecipitation (CLIP) is a transformative technology in which RNAs purified from in vivo cross-linked RNA-protein complexes are sequenced to reveal footprints of RNABP:RNA contacts. CLIP combined with high-throughput sequencing (HITS-CLIP) is a generalizable strategy to produce transcriptome-wide maps of RNA binding with higher accuracy and resolution than standard RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) profiling or purely computational approaches. The application of CLIP to Argonaute proteins has expanded the utility of this approach to mapping binding sites for microRNAs and other small regulatory RNAs. Finally, recent advances in data analysis take advantage of cross-link-induced mutation sites (CIMS) to refine RNA-binding maps to single-nucleotide resolution. Once IP conditions are established, HITS-CLIP takes ∼8 d to prepare RNA for sequencing. Established pipelines for data analysis, including those for CIMS, take 3-4 d.

Neuronal Elav-like (Hu) proteins regulate RNA splicing and abundance to control glutamate levels and neuronal excitability.

The paraneoplastic neurologic disorders target several families of neuron-specific RNA binding proteins (RNABPs), revealing that there are unique aspects of gene expression regulation in the mammalian brain. Here, we used HITS-CLIP to determine robust binding sites targeted by the neuronal Elav-like (nElavl) RNABPs. Surprisingly, nElav protein binds preferentially to GU-rich sequences in vivo and in vitro, with secondary binding to AU-rich sequences. nElavl null mice were used to validate the consequence of these binding events in the brain, demonstrating that they bind intronic sequences in a position dependent manner to regulate alternative splicing and to 3'UTR sequences to regulate mRNA levels. These controls converge on the glutamate synthesis pathway in neurons; nElavl proteins are required to maintain neurotransmitter glutamate levels, and the lack of nElavl leads to spontaneous epileptic seizure activity. The genome-wide analysis of nElavl targets reveals that one function of neuron-specific RNABPs is to control excitation-inhibition balance in the brain.

Ptbp2 represses adult-specific splicing to regulate the generation of neuronal precursors in the embryonic brain.

Two polypyrimidine tract RNA-binding proteins (PTBs), one near-ubiquitously expressed (Ptbp1) and another highly tissue-restricted (Ptbp2), regulate RNA in interrelated but incompletely understood ways. Ptbp1, a splicing regulator, is replaced in the brain and differentiated neuronal cell lines by Ptbp2. To define the roles of Ptbp2 in the nervous system, we generated two independent Ptbp2-null strains, unexpectedly revealing that Ptbp2 is expressed in neuronal progenitors and is essential for postnatal survival. A HITS-CLIP (high-throughput sequencing cross-linking immunoprecipitation)-generated map of reproducible Ptbp2-RNA interactions in the developing mouse neocortex, combined with results from splicing-sensitive microarrays, demonstrated that the major action of Ptbp2 is to inhibit adult-specific alternative exons by binding pyrimidine-rich sequences upstream of and/or within them. These regulated exons are present in mRNAs encoding proteins associated with control of cell fate, proliferation, and the actin cytoskeleton, suggesting a role for Ptbp2 in neurogenesis. Indeed, neuronal progenitors in the Ptbp2-null brain exhibited an aberrant polarity and were associated with regions of premature neurogenesis and reduced progenitor pools. Thus, Ptbp2 inhibition of a discrete set of adult neuronal exons underlies early brain development prior to neuronal differentiation and is essential for postnatal survival.

FMRP stalls ribosomal translocation on mRNAs linked to synaptic function and autism.

FMRP loss of function causes Fragile X syndrome (FXS) and autistic features. FMRP is a polyribosome-associated neuronal RNA-binding protein, suggesting that it plays a key role in regulating neuronal translation, but there has been little consensus regarding either its RNA targets or mechanism of action. Here, we use high-throughput sequencing of RNAs isolated by crosslinking immunoprecipitation (HITS-CLIP) to identify FMRP interactions with mouse brain polyribosomal mRNAs. FMRP interacts with the coding region of transcripts encoding pre- and postsynaptic proteins and transcripts implicated in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). We developed a brain polyribosome-programmed translation system, revealing that FMRP reversibly stalls ribosomes specifically on its target mRNAs. Our results suggest that loss of a translational brake on the synthesis of a subset of synaptic proteins contributes to FXS. In addition, they provide insight into the molecular basis of the cognitive and allied defects in FXS and ASD and suggest multiple targets for clinical intervention.

Nova2 regulates neuronal migration through an RNA switch in disabled-1 signaling.

Neuronal migration leads to a highly organized laminar structure in the mammalian brain, and its misregulation causes lissencephaly and behavioral and cognitive defects. Reelin signaling, which is mediated in part by a key adaptor, disabled-1 (Dab1), plays a critical but incompletely understood role in this process. We found that the neuron-specific RNA-binding protein Nova2 regulates neuronal migration in late-generated cortical and Purkinje neurons. An unbiased HITS-CLIP and exon junction array search for Nova-dependent reelin-pathway RNAs at E14.5 revealed only one candidate-an alternatively spliced isoform of Dab1 (Dab1.7bc). In utero electroporation demonstrated that Dab1.7bc was sufficient to induce neuronal migration defects in wild-type mice and exacerbate defects when Dab1 levels were reduced, whereas Dab1 overexpression mitigates defects in Nova2 null mice. Thus, Nova2 regulates an RNA switch controlling the ability of Dab1 to mediate neuronal responsiveness to reelin signaling and neuronal migration, suggesting new links between splicing regulation, brain disease, and development.

Integrative modeling defines the Nova splicing-regulatory network and its combinatorial controls.

The control of RNA alternative splicing is critical for generating biological diversity. Despite emerging genome-wide technologies to study RNA complexity, reliable and comprehensive RNA-regulatory networks have not been defined. Here, we used Bayesian networks to probabilistically model diverse data sets and predict the target networks of specific regulators. We applied this strategy to identify approximately 700 alternative splicing events directly regulated by the neuron-specific factor Nova in the mouse brain, integrating RNA-binding data, splicing microarray data, Nova-binding motifs, and evolutionary signatures. The resulting integrative network revealed combinatorial regulation by Nova and the neuronal splicing factor Fox, interplay between phosphorylation and splicing, and potential links to neurologic disease. Thus, we have developed a general approach to understanding mammalian RNA regulation at the systems level.

Argonaute HITS-CLIP decodes microRNA-mRNA interaction maps.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have critical roles in the regulation of gene expression; however, as miRNA activity requires base pairing with only 6-8 nucleotides of messenger RNA, predicting target mRNAs is a major challenge. Recently, high-throughput sequencing of RNAs isolated by crosslinking immunoprecipitation (HITS-CLIP) has identified functional protein-RNA interaction sites. Here we use HITS-CLIP to covalently crosslink native argonaute (Ago, also called Eif2c) protein-RNA complexes in mouse brain. This produced two simultaneous data sets-Ago-miRNA and Ago-mRNA binding sites-that were combined with bioinformatic analysis to identify interaction sites between miRNA and target mRNA. We validated genome-wide interaction maps for miR-124, and generated additional maps for the 20 most abundant miRNAs present in P13 mouse brain. Ago HITS-CLIP provides a general platform for exploring the specificity and range of miRNA action in vivo, and identifies precise sequences for targeting clinically relevant miRNA-mRNA interactions.