High-throughput quantitation of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in a single-dilution homogeneous assay.

SARS-CoV-2 emerged in late 2019 and has since spread around the world, causing a pandemic of the respiratory disease COVID-19. Detecting antibodies against the virus is an essential tool for tracking infections and developing vaccines. Such tests, primarily utilizing the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) principle, can be either qualitative (reporting positive/negative results) or quantitative (reporting a value representing the quantity of specific antibodies). Quantitation is vital for determining stability or decline of antibody titers in convalescence, efficacy of different vaccination regimens, and detection of asymptomatic infections. Quantitation typically requires two-step ELISA testing, in which samples are first screened in a qualitative assay and positive samples are subsequently analyzed as a dilution series. To overcome the throughput limitations of this approach, we developed a simpler and faster system that is highly automatable and achieves quantitation in a single-dilution screening format with sensitivity and specificity comparable to those of ELISA.

Problematic alcohol use associates with sodium channel and clathrin linker 1 (SCLT1) in trauma-exposed populations.

Excessive alcohol use is extremely prevalent in the United States, particularly among trauma-exposed individuals. While several studies have examined genetic influences on alcohol use and related problems, this has not been studied in the context of trauma-exposed populations. We report results from a genome-wide association study of alcohol consumption and associated problems as measured by the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT) in a trauma-exposed cohort. Results indicate a genome-wide significant association between total AUDIT score and rs1433375 [N = 1036, P = 2.61 × 10-8 (dominant model), P = 7.76 × 10-8 (additive model)], an intergenic single-nucleotide polymorphism located 323 kb upstream of the sodium channel and clathrin linker 1 (SCLT1) at 4q28. rs1433375 was also significant in a meta-analysis of two similar, but independent, cohorts (N = 1394, P = 0.0004), the Marine Resiliency Study and Systems Biology PTSD Biomarkers Consortium. Functional analysis indicated that rs1433375 was associated with SCLT1 gene expression and cortical-cerebellar functional connectivity measured via resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging. Together, findings suggest a role for sodium channel regulation and cerebellar functioning in alcohol use behavior. Identifying mechanisms underlying risk for problematic alcohol use in trauma-exposed populations is critical for future treatment and prevention efforts.

New discoveries in schizophrenia genetics reveal neurobiological pathways: A review of recent findings.

Schizophrenia research has undergone a recent transformation. By leveraging large sample sizes, genome-wide association studies of common genetic variants have approximately tripled the number of candidate genetic loci. Rare variant studies have identified copy number variants that are schizophrenia risk loci. Among these, the 3q29 microdeletion is now known to be the single largest schizophrenia risk factor. Next-generation sequencing studies are increasingly used for rare variant association testing, and have already facilitated identification of large effect alleles. Collectively, recent findings implicate voltage-gated calcium channel and cytoskeletal pathways in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Taken together, these results suggest the possibility of imminent breakthroughs in the molecular understanding of schizophrenia.

Cross-cultural gene- environment interactions in depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and the cortisol awakening response: FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood trauma in South Asia.

Despite increased attention to global mental health, psychiatric genetic research has been dominated by studies in high-income countries, especially with populations of European descent. The objective of this study was to assess single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the FKBP5 gene in a population living in South Asia. Among adults in Nepal, depression was assessed with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C), and childhood maltreatment with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). FKBP5 SNPs were genotyped for 682 participants. Cortisol awakening response (CAR) was assessed in a subsample of 118 participants over 3 days. The FKBP5 tag-SNP rs9296158 showed a main effect on depressive symptoms (p = 0.03). Interaction of rs9296158 and childhood maltreatment predicted adult depressive symptoms (p = 0.02) but not PTSD. Childhood maltreatment associated with endocrine response in individuals homozygous for the A allele, demonstrated by a negative CAR and overall hypocortisolaemia in the rs9296158 AA genotype and childhood maltreatment group (p < 0.001). This study replicated findings related to FKBP5 and depression but not PTSD. Gene-environment studies should take differences in prevalence and cultural significance of phenotypes and exposures into account when interpreting cross-cultural findings.

A genome-wide identified risk variant for PTSD is a methylation quantitative trait locus and confers decreased cortical activation to fearful faces.

Genetic factors appear to be highly relevant to predicting differential risk for the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In a discovery sample, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for PTSD using a small military cohort (Systems Biology PTSD Biomarkers Consortium; SBPBC, N = 147) that was designed as a case-controlled sample of highly exposed, recently returning veterans with and without combat-related PTSD. A genome-wide significant single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs717947, at chromosome 4p15 (N = 147, ß = 31.34, P = 1.28 × 10(-8) ) was found to associate with the gold-standard diagnostic measure for PTSD (the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale). We conducted replication and follow-up studies in an external sample, a larger urban community cohort (Grady Trauma Project, GTP, N = 2006), to determine the robustness and putative functionality of this risk variant. In the GTP replication sample, SNP rs717947 associated with PTSD diagnosis in females (N = 2006, P = 0.005), but not males. SNP rs717947 was also found to be a methylation quantitative trait locus (meQTL) in the GTP replication sample (N = 157, P = 0.002). Further, the risk allele of rs717947 was associated with decreased medial and dorsolateral cortical activation to fearful faces (N = 53, P < 0.05) in the GTP replication sample. These data identify a genome-wide significant polymorphism conferring risk for PTSD, which was associated with differential epigenetic regulation and with differential cortical responses to fear in a replication sample. These results may provide new insight into understanding genetic and epigenetic regulation of PTSD and intermediate phenotypes that contribute to this disorder.

DNA extracted from saliva for methylation studies of psychiatric traits: evidence tissue specificity and relatedness to brain.

DNA methylation has become increasingly recognized in the etiology of psychiatric disorders. Because brain tissue is not accessible in living humans, epigenetic studies are most often conducted in blood. Saliva is often collected for genotyping studies but is rarely used to examine DNA methylation because the proportion of epithelial cells and leukocytes varies extensively between individuals. The goal of this study was to evaluate whether saliva DNA is informative for studies of psychiatric disorders. DNA methylation (HumanMethylation450 BeadChip) was assessed in saliva and blood samples from 64 adult African Americans. Analyses were conducted using linear regression adjusted for appropriate covariates, including estimated cellular proportions. DNA methylation from brain tissues (cerebellum, frontal cortex, entorhinal cortex, and superior temporal gyrus) was obtained from a publically available dataset. Saliva and blood methylation was clearly distinguishable though there was positive correlation overall. There was little correlation in CpG sites within relevant candidate genes. Correlated CpG sites were more likely to occur in areas of low CpG density (i.e., CpG shores and open seas). There was more variability in CpG sites from saliva than blood, which may reflect its heterogeneity. Finally, DNA methylation in saliva appeared more similar to patterns from each of the brain regions examined overall than methylation in blood. Thus, this study provides a framework for using DNA methylation from saliva and suggests that DNA methylation of saliva may offer distinct opportunities for epidemiological and longitudinal studies of psychiatric traits.

Early intervention following trauma may mitigate genetic risk for PTSD in civilians: a pilot prospective emergency department study.

BACKGROUND: Civilian posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and combat PTSD are major public health concerns. Although a number of psychosocial risk factors have been identified related to PTSD risk, there are no accepted, robust biological predictors that identify who will develop PTSD or who will respond to early intervention following trauma. We wished to examine whether genetic risk for PTSD can be mitigated with an early intervention. METHOD: 65 emergency department patients recruited in 2009-2010 at Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia, who met criterion A of DSM-IV PTSD received either 3 sessions of an exposure intervention, beginning in the emergency department shortly after trauma exposure or assessment only. PTSD symptoms were assessed 4 and 12 weeks after trauma exposure. A composite additive risk score was derived from polymorphisms in 10 previously identified genes associated with stress-response (ADCYAP1R1, COMT, CRHR1, DBH, DRD2, FAAH, FKBP5, NPY, NTRK2, and PCLO), and gene x treatment effects were examined. The intervention included 3 sessions of imaginal exposure to the trauma memory and additional exposure homework. The primary outcome measure was the PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview Version or DSM-IV-based PTSD diagnosis in patients related to genotype and treatment group. RESULTS: A gene x intervention x time effect was detected for individual polymorphisms, in particular the PACAP receptor, ADCYAP1R1, as well as with a combined genotype risk score created from independent SNP markers. Subjects who did not receive treatment had higher symptoms than those who received intervention. Furthermore, subjects with the "risk" genotypes who did not receive intervention had higher PTSD symptoms compared to those with the "low-risk" or "resilience" genotypes or those who received intervention. Additionally, PTSD symptoms correlated with level of genetic risk at week 12 (P < .005) in the assessment-only group, but with no relationship in the intervention group, even after controlling for age, sex, race, education, income, and childhood trauma. Using logistic regression, the number of risk alleles was significantly associated with likelihood of PTSD diagnosis at week 12 (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: This pilot prospective study suggests that combined genetic variants may serve to predict those most at risk for developing PTSD following trauma. A psychotherapeutic intervention initiated in the emergency department within hours of the trauma may mitigate this risk. The role of genetic predictors of risk and resilience should be further evaluated in larger, prospective intervention and prevention trials. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00895518.

Methylation quantitative trait loci (meQTLs) are consistently detected across ancestry, developmental stage, and tissue type.

BACKGROUND: Individual genotypes at specific loci can result in different patterns of DNA methylation. These methylation quantitative trait loci (meQTLs) influence methylation across extended genomic regions and may underlie direct SNP associations or gene-environment interactions. We hypothesized that the detection of meQTLs varies with ancestral population, developmental stage, and tissue type. We explored this by analyzing seven datasets that varied by ancestry (African American vs. Caucasian), developmental stage (neonate vs. adult), and tissue type (blood vs. four regions of postmortem brain) with genome-wide DNA methylation and SNP data. We tested for meQTLs by constructing linear regression models of methylation levels at each CpG site on SNP genotypes within 50 kb under an additive model controlling for multiple tests. RESULTS: Most meQTLs mapped to intronic regions, although a limited number appeared to occur in synonymous or nonsynonymous coding SNPs. We saw significant overlap of meQTLs between ancestral groups, developmental stages, and tissue types, with the highest rates of overlap within the four brain regions. Compared with a random group of SNPs with comparable frequencies, meQTLs were more likely to be 1) represented among the most associated SNPs in the WTCCC bipolar disorder results and 2) located in microRNA binding sites. CONCLUSIONS: These data give us insight into how SNPs impact gene regulation and support the notion that peripheral blood may be a reliable correlate of physiological processes in other tissues.

Accounting for population stratification in DNA methylation studies.

DNA methylation is an important epigenetic mechanism that has been linked to complex diseases and is of great interest to researchers as a potential link between genome, environment, and disease. As the scale of DNA methylation association studies approaches that of genome-wide association studies, issues such as population stratification will need to be addressed. It is well-documented that failure to adjust for population stratification can lead to false positives in genetic association studies, but population stratification is often unaccounted for in DNA methylation studies. Here, we propose several approaches to correct for population stratification using principal components (PCs) from different subsets of genome-wide methylation data. We first illustrate the potential for confounding due to population stratification by demonstrating widespread associations between DNA methylation and race in 388 individuals (365 African American and 23 Caucasian). We subsequently evaluate the performance of our PC-based approaches and other methods in adjusting for confounding due to population stratification. Our simulations show that (1) all of the methods considered are effective at removing inflation due to population stratification, and (2) maximum power can be obtained with single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-based PCs, followed by methylation-based PCs, which outperform both surrogate variable analysis and genomic control. Among our different approaches to computing methylation-based PCs, we find that PCs based on CpG sites chosen for their potential to proxy nearby SNPs can provide a powerful and computationally efficient approach to adjust for population stratification in DNA methylation studies when genome-wide SNP data are unavailable.

Family environment and adult resilience: contributions of positive parenting and the oxytocin receptor gene.

BACKGROUND: Abundant research shows that childhood adversity increases the risk for adult psychopathology while research on influences of positive family environment on risk for psychopathology is limited. Similarly, a growing body of research examines genetic and gene by environment predictors of psychopathology, yet such research on predictors of resilience is sparse. OBJECTIVES: We examined the role of positive factors in childhood family environment (CFE) and the OXTR rs53576 genotype in predicting levels of adult resilient coping and positive affect. We also examined whether the relationship between positive factors in the CFEs and adult resilient coping and positive affect varied across OXTR rs53576 genotype. METHODS: We gathered self-report data on childhood environment, trauma history, and adult resilience and positive affect in a sample of 971 African American adults. RESULTS: We found that positive CFE was positively associated with higher levels of resilient coping and positive affect in adulthood after controlling for childhood maltreatment, other trauma, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. We did not find a direct effect of OXTR 53576 on a combined resilient coping/positive-affect-dependent variable, but we did find an interaction of OXTR rs53576 with family environment. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that even in the face of adversity, positive aspects of the family environment may contribute to resilience. These results highlight the importance of considering protective developmental experiences and the interaction of such experiences with genetic variants in risk and resilience research.

Childhood maltreatment is associated with distinct genomic and epigenetic profiles in posttraumatic stress disorder.

Childhood maltreatment is likely to influence fundamental biological processes and engrave long-lasting epigenetic marks, leading to adverse health outcomes in adulthood. We aimed to elucidate the impact of different early environment on disease-related genome-wide gene expression and DNA methylation in peripheral blood cells in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Compared with the same trauma-exposed controls (n = 108), gene-expression profiles of PTSD patients with similar clinical symptoms and matched adult trauma exposure but different childhood adverse events (n = 32 and 29) were almost completely nonoverlapping (98%). These differences on the level of individual transcripts were paralleled by the enrichment of several distinct biological networks between the groups. Moreover, these gene-expression changes were accompanied and likely mediated by changes in DNA methylation in the same loci to a much larger proportion in the childhood abuse (69%) vs. the non-child abuse-only group (34%). This study is unique in providing genome-wide evidence of distinct biological modifications in PTSD in the presence or absence of exposure to childhood abuse. The findings that nonoverlapping biological pathways seem to be affected in the two PTSD groups and that changes in DNA methylation appear to have a much greater impact in the childhood-abuse group might reflect differences in the pathophysiology of PTSD, in dependence of exposure to childhood maltreatment. These results contribute to a better understanding of the extent of influence of differences in trauma exposure on pathophysiological processes in stress-related psychiatric disorders and may have implications for personalized medicine.

Inhibition of fear is differentially associated with cycling estrogen levels in women.

BACKGROUND: Although the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is twice as high in women as it is in men, the role of estrogen in the risk for PTSD is not well understood. Deficits in fear inhibition and impaired safety signal learning may be biomarkers for PTSD. We examined menstrual cycle phase and serum estradiol levels in naturally cycling women while they were undergoing a novel conditioned inhibition procedure that measured their ability to discriminate between cues representing danger versus safety and to inhibit fear in the presence of safety cues. METHODS: Sample 1 included healthy participants in whom we compared inhibition of fearpotentiated startle during the follicular (lower estrogen) and luteal (higher estrogen) phases of the menstrual cycle. We used the same paradigm in a traumatized clinical population (sample 2) in whom we compared low versus high estradiol levels. RESULTS: In both samples, we found that lower estrogen in cycling women was associated with impaired fear inhibition. LIMITATIONS: In the clinical sample, the low estradiol group was on average older than the high estradiol group owing to the random recruitment approach; we did not exclude participants based on hormonal status or menopause. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that the lower estrogen state during normal menstrual cycling may contribute to risk for anxiety disorders through dysregulated fear responses.

Differential Genetic and Epigenetic Regulation of catechol-O-methyltransferase is Associated with Impaired Fear Inhibition in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

The catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) enzyme is critical for the catabolic regulation of synaptic dopamine, resulting in altered cortical functioning. The COMT Val(158)Met polymorphism has been implicated in human mental illness, with Met/Met homozygotes associated with increased susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Our primary objective was to examine the intermediate phenotype of fear inhibition in PTSD stratified by COMT genotype (Met/Met, Val/Met, and Val/Val) and differential gene regulation via methylation status at CpG sites in the COMT promoter region. More specifically, we examined the potential interaction of COMT genotype and PTSD diagnosis on fear-potentiated startle during fear conditioning and extinction and COMT DNA methylation levels (as determined using genomic DNA isolated from whole blood). Participants were recruited from medical and gynecological clinics of an urban hospital in Atlanta, GA, USA. We found that individuals with the Met/Met genotype demonstrated higher fear-potentiated startle to the CS- (safety signal) and during extinction of the CS+ (danger signal) compared to Val/Met and Val/Val genotypes. The PTSD+ Met/Met genotype group had the greatest impairment in fear inhibition to the CS- (p = 0.006), compared to Val carriers. In addition, the Met/Met genotype was associated with DNA methylation at four CpG sites, two of which were associated with impaired fear inhibition to the safety signal. These results suggest that multiple differential mechanisms for regulating COMT function - at the level of protein structure via the Val(158)Met genotype and at the level of gene regulation via differential methylation - are associated with impaired fear inhibition in PTSD.

ADCYAP1R1 genotype associates with post-traumatic stress symptoms in highly traumatized African-American females.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and its receptor (PAC1) play a critical role in biological processes that mediate stress response and have been implicated in psychological outcome following trauma. Our previous work [Ressler et al. (2011); Nature 470:492-497] demonstrated that a variant, rs2267735, in the gene encoding PAC1 (ADCYAP1R1) is associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a primarily African-American cohort of highly traumatized females. We sought to extend and replicate our previous finding in a similarly trauma-exposed, replicate sample of 1,160 African-American adult male and female patients. Self-reported psychiatric measures were collected, and DNA was obtained for genetic analysis. Using linear regression models to test for association with PTSD symptom severity under an additive (allelic) model, we found a genotype × trauma interaction in females (P < 0.001), but not males (P > 0.1); however, there was no main effect of genotype as in our previous study. The observed interaction suggests a genetic association that increases with the degree of trauma exposure in females only. This interaction remained significant in females, but not males, after controlling for age (P < 0.001), income (P < 0.01), past substance abuse (P < 0.001), depression severity (P = 0.02), or child abuse (P < 0.0005), and all five combined (P = 0.01). No significant effects of genotype (or interactions) were found when modeling depression severity when controlling for comorbid PTSD symptom severity (P > 0.1), demonstrating the relative specificity of this variant for PTSD symptoms. A meta-analysis with the previously reported African-American samples revealed a strong association between PTSD symptom severity and the interaction between trauma and genotype in females (N = 1424, P < 0.0001).

Sex dependent influence of a functional polymorphism in steroid 5-α-reductase type 2 (SRD5A2) on post-traumatic stress symptoms.

A non-synonymous, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the gene coding for steroid 5-α-reductase type 2 (SRD5A2) is associated with reduced conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Because SRD5A2 participates in the regulation of testosterone and cortisol metabolism, hormones shown to be dysregulated in patients with PTSD, we examined whether the V89L variant (rs523349) influences risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Study participants (N = 1,443) were traumatized African-American patients of low socioeconomic status with high rates of lifetime trauma exposure recruited from the primary care clinics of a large, urban hospital. PTSD symptoms were measured with the post-traumatic stress symptom scale (PSS). Subjects were genotyped for the V89L variant (rs523349) of SRD5A2. We initially found a significant sex-dependent effect of genotype in male but not female subjects on symptoms. Associations with PTSD symptoms were confirmed using a separate internal replication sample with identical methods of data analysis, followed by pooled analysis of the combined samples (N = 1,443, sex × genotype interaction P < 0.002; males: n = 536, P < 0.001). These data support the hypothesis that functional variation within SRD5A2 influences, in a sex-specific way, the severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms and risk for diagnosis of PTSD.

FKBP5 and attention bias for threat: associations with hippocampal function and shape.

IMPORTANCE: The FKBP5 gene product regulates glucocorticoid receptor (GR) sensitivity and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning and has been associated with many stress-related psychiatric disorders. The study of intermediate phenotypes, such as emotion-processing biases and their neural substrates, provides a way to clarify the mechanisms by which FKBP5 dysregulation mediates risk for psychiatric disorders. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether allelic variations for a putatively functional single-nucleotide polymorphism associated with FKBP5 gene regulation (rs1360780) would relate differentially to attention bias for threat. this was measured through behavioral response on a dot probe task and hippocampal activation during task performance. Morphologic substrates of differential hippocampal response were also measured. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study conducted from 2010 to 2012 examining associations between genotype, behavioral response, and neural response (using functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI]) on the dot probe; voxel-based morphometry and global and local shape analyses were used to measure structural differences in hippocampi between genotype groups. SETTING: Participants were recruited from primary care clinics of a publicly funded hospital in Atlanta, Georgia. PARTICIPANTS: An African American cohort of adults (N = 103) was separated into 2 groups by genotype: one genotype group included carriers of the rs1360780 T allele, which has been associated with increased risk for posttraumatic stress disorder and affective disorders; the other group did not carry this allele. Behavioral data included both sexes (N = 103); the MRI cohort (n = 36) included only women. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Behavioral and fMRI (blood oxygen level-dependent) response, voxel-based morphometry, and shape analyses. RESULTS: Carriers of the rs1360780 T allele showed an attention bias toward threat compared with individuals without this allele (F1,90 = 5.19, P = .02). Carriers of this allele demonstrated corresponding increases in hippocampal activation and differences in morphology; global and local shape analyses revealed alterations in hippocampal shape for TT/TC compared with CC genotype groups. CONCLUSION: Genetic variants of FKBP5 may be associated with risk for stress-related psychiatric disorders via differential effects on hippocampal structure and function, resulting in altered attention response to perceived threat.

Adcyap1r1 genotype, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression among women exposed to childhood maltreatment.

BACKGROUND: A growing literature indicates that genetic variation, in combination with adverse early life experiences, shapes risk for later mental illness. Recent work also suggests that molecular variation at the ADCYAP1R1 locus is associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in women. We sought to test whether childhood maltreatment (CM) interacts with ADCYAP1R1 genotype to predict PTSD in women. METHODS: Data were obtained from 495 adult female participants from the Detroit Neighborhood Health Study. Genotyping of rs2267735, an ADCYAP1R1 variant, was conducted via TaqMan assay. PTSD, depression, and CM exposure were assessed via structured interviews. Main and interacting effects of ADCYAP1R1 and CM levels on past month PTSD and posttraumatic stress (PTS) severity were examined using logistic regression and a general linear model, respectively. As a secondary analysis, we also assessed main and interacting effects of ADCYAP1R1 and CM variation on risk of past-month depression diagnosis and symptom severity. RESULTS: No significant main effects were observed for ADCYAP1R1 genotype on either PTSD/PTS severity. In contrast, a significant ADCYAP1R1 × CM interaction was observed for both past month PTSD and PTS severity, with carriers of the "C" allele showing enhanced risk for these outcomes among women exposed to CM. No significant main or interaction effects were observed for past month depression/depression severity. CONCLUSIONS: Genetic variation at the ADCYAP1R1 locus interacts with CM to shape risk of later PTSD, but not depression, among women. The molecular mechanisms contributing to this interaction require further investigation.

Allele-specific FKBP5 DNA demethylation mediates gene-childhood trauma interactions.

Although the fact that genetic predisposition and environmental exposures interact to shape development and function of the human brain and, ultimately, the risk of psychiatric disorders has drawn wide interest, the corresponding molecular mechanisms have not yet been elucidated. We found that a functional polymorphism altering chromatin interaction between the transcription start site and long-range enhancers in the FK506 binding protein 5 (FKBP5) gene, an important regulator of the stress hormone system, increased the risk of developing stress-related psychiatric disorders in adulthood by allele-specific, childhood trauma-dependent DNA demethylation in functional glucocorticoid response elements of FKBP5. This demethylation was linked to increased stress-dependent gene transcription followed by a long-term dysregulation of the stress hormone system and a global effect on the function of immune cells and brain areas associated with stress regulation. This identification of molecular mechanisms of genotype-directed long-term environmental reactivity will be useful for designing more effective treatment strategies for stress-related disorders.

Estrogen levels are associated with extinction deficits in women with posttraumatic stress disorder.

BACKGROUND: Women are twice as likely to develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than men. As shown in our previous work, the inability to suppress fear responses in safe conditions may be a biomarker for PTSD. Low estrogen in naturally cycling women is associated with deficits in fear extinction. On the basis of these findings, we have now examined the influence of estrogen levels on fear extinction in women with and without PTSD. METHODS: We measured fear-potentiated startle during fear conditioning and extinction in women. The study sample (N = 81) was recruited from an urban, highly traumatized civilian population at Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia. We assayed serum estrogen levels and used a median split to divide the sample into high and low estradiol (E(2)) groups. Seventeen of 41 women (41.5%) in the low E(2) group and 15 of 40 women (37.5%) met criteria for PTSD in the high E(2) group. RESULTS: The results showed that all groups had equivalent levels of fear conditioning. However, we found significant interaction effects between high versus low E(2) groups and PTSD diagnosis [F(1,71) = 4.55, p < .05] on extinction. Among women with low estrogen levels, fear-potentiated startle was higher during extinction in the PTSD group compared with traumatized control women [F(1,38) = 5.04, p < .05]. This effect was absent in the High E(2) group. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that low estrogen may be a vulnerability factor for development of PTSD in women with trauma histories. Research on the role of estrogen in fear regulation may provide insight into novel treatment strategies for PTSD.