Single-Dose Human Papillomavirus Vaccination in Low- and Middle-Income Countries-Time for Implementation?

Although cervical cancer is becoming a rare disease in high income regions, it is still a major health issue in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Cervical cancer develops after infection with a high-risk human papilloma virus (hrHPV), an infection against which vaccination has been possible since 2006. Large population immunization programs have been organized in many higher income countries, and yet they have not been implemented in most of the lower and middle-income nations. The cost of the vaccine, as well as the need for two doses impedes coverage in the most vulnerable groups. Studies are suggesting the efficacy of single dose vaccination, but so far only observational data are available while large, randomized, double-blind studies are still ongoing. In order to prevent and combat this disease, it is essential to inform the population of vaccination benefits and offer accessible programs in higher as well as low-and middle-income countries. In this commentary, we wish to focus our attention on the case for implementing single dose vaccination in lower- and middle-income nations.

A multidisciplinary approach to clitoral reconstruction after female genital mutilation: the crucial role of counselling.

OBJECTIVES: Female genital mutilation (FGM) is becoming more widely seen in the West, due to immigration and population movement. Health services are being confronted with the need to provide care for women with FGM. One of the more recent trends is the provision of clitoral reconstruction. It remains unclear, however, what constitutes good practice with regard to this type of surgery. METHODS: Based on a keynote presentation about reconstructive clitoral surgery, we briefly discuss the possible consequences of FGM and the findings from recent publications on clitoral reconstruction. Recognising individual differences in women, we suggest a multidisciplinary counselling model to provide appropriate care for women requesting clitoral reconstruction. RESULTS: The literature shows that FGM influences physical, mental and sexual health. Clitoral reconstructive surgery can lead to an increase in sexual satisfaction and orgasm in some, but not all, women. A multidisciplinary approach would enable a more satisfactory and individually tailored approach to care. The multidisciplinary team should consist of a midwife, a gynaecological surgeon, a psychologist-psychotherapist, a sexologist and a social worker. Comprehensive health counselling should be the common thread in this model of care. Our proposed care pathway starts with taking a thorough history, followed by medical, psychological and sexological consultations. CONCLUSIONS: Women with FGM requesting clitoral reconstruction might primarily be looking to improve their sexual life, to recover their identity and to reduce pain. Surgery may not always be the right answer. Thorough counselling that includes medical, psychological and sexual advice is therefore necessary as part of a multidisciplinary approach.

Early effects of human papillomavirus vaccination in Belgium.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination has been reimbursed in Belgium since 2007 for girls (12-15 years), extended to girls up to 18 years in 2008. This study assesses the trend of HPV 16/18 infections in women less than 25 years of age participating in opportunistic cervical cancer screening. A significant reduction in the prevalence of HPV 16 [relative risk (RR)=0.61, 95% confidence interval=0.39-0.95] and a nonsignificant reduction in HPV 18 (RR=0.65, 95% confidence interval=0.29-1.48) was found in the youngest group (15-19 years). The prevalences in the older age group did not change significantly. These findings show the early effects of HPV vaccination and confirm the effectiveness of immunization in a real-life setting.

High frequency of genital human papillomavirus infections and related cervical dysplasia in adolescent girls in Belgium.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections are causally related to cervical cancer and a range of other diseases, both in adults and in minors. Information on the frequency of genital HPV infections in adolescents is sparse. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the genotype-specific distribution of HPV genotypes in patients younger than 18 years of age. This observational retrospective study included 4807 samples of patients presenting for opportunistic screening in Belgium between June 2006 and January 2012. For statistical analysis, only the first visits of patients were withheld, reducing the sample to 4180. Samples were collected in liquid-based cytology medium and analyzed using a series of genotype-specific real-time PCR reactions. Cytology was read with previous knowledge of HPV infection and scored using the Bethesda classification. The mean age was 16.9 years. Most youngsters had no complaints (88.4%), were using hormonal contraception (79.5%), and clinical examination did not show any abnormalities (96.0%). The overall HPV frequency was 15.7%, with the most frequently found types being HPV16 (16.7%), HPV51 (14.6%), HPV66 (10.4%), HPV31 (9.9%), and HPV39 (9.1%). More than one-third (39.0%) of the infected girls harbored an infection with at least two HPV genotypes. Cytological abnormalities were found in 8.2% of samples. L-SIL (4.2%) was most frequently observed, followed by ASC-US (3.6%), HSIL (0.3%), and ASC-H (0.1%). The severity of lesions worsened with increasing age. Our findings indicate that an aberrant HPV genotype profile can be found in adolescent girls; moreover, this group shows a high rate of cervical abnormalities.

Transmission of carcinogenic human papillomavirus types from mother to child: a meta-analysis of published studies.

Currently, human papillomavirus (HPV) research focuses on HPV infection in adults and sexual transmission. Data on HPV infection in children are slowly becoming available. It is a matter of debate whether mother-to-child transmission of HPV is an important infection route and whether children born to HPV-positive mothers are at a higher risk of HPV infection compared with children born to HPV-negative mothers. The objective of this meta-analysis is to summarize the published literature on the extent to which genital HPV infection is vertically transmitted from mother to child. Medline, Web of Science, and CINAHL were searched for eligible reports published before January 2011. Differences in the risk of HPV infection between newborns from HPV-positive and HPV-negative mothers were pooled using a random-effects model. Twenty eligible studies, including 3128 women/children pairs, fulfilled the selection criteria. High heterogeneity could be found (I=96%). The overall estimated risk difference was 33% (95% confidence interval: 22-44%). On restricting to high-risk HPV-positive mothers only (n=4; women=231), the difference in risk was 45% (95% confidence interval: 33-56%). The heterogeneity was found to be low (I=15%). This meta-analysis indicates a significantly higher risk for children born to HPV-positive mothers to become HPV positive themselves. Plausible explanations include vertical transmission of HPV during pregnancy and/or birth or a higher infection rate during early nursing from mother to child. More research is required to gain an insight into the precise mode of transmission and the clinical effects of infection on the child.

Does structured counselling influence combined hormonal contraceptive choice?

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of structured counselling on women's contraceptive decisions and to evaluate gynaecologists' perceptions of comprehensive contraceptive counselling. METHODS: Belgian women (18-40 years old) who were considering using a combined hormonal contraceptive (CHC) were counselled by their gynaecologists about available CHCs (combined oral contraceptive [COC], transdermal patch, vaginal ring), using a comprehensive leaflet. Patients and gynaecologists completed questionnaires that gathered information on the woman's pre- and post-counselling contraceptive choice, her perceptions, and the reasons behind her post-counselling decision. RESULTS: The gynaecologists (N=121) enrolled 1801 eligible women. Nearly all women (94%) were able to choose a method after counselling (53%, 5%, and 27% chose the COC, the patch, and the ring, respectively). Counselling made many women (39%) select a different method: patch use increased from 3% to 5% (p<0.0001); ring use tripled (from 9% to 27%, p<0.0001). Women who were undecided before counselling most often opted for the method their gynaecologist recommended, irrespective of counselling. CONCLUSION: Counselling allows most women to select a contraceptive method; a sizeable proportion of them decide on a method different from the one they initially had in mind. Gynaecologists? preferences influenced the contraceptive choices of women who were initially undecided regarding the method to use.