The 'Werther Effect' of Goethe's Werther: Anecdotal Evidence in Historical News Reports.

Anecdotal evidence suggests a spike in suicides occurred after the publication of Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther in 1774. Imitation suicides elicited by media portrayals of suicide have since been termed the "Werther effect." However, evidence for a suicide "epidemic" after the publication of Goethe's Werther is limited to unsystematically documented cases. This study provides an overview of all previously noted copycat suicides, as well as a systematic search for anecdotal evidence of suicides imitating Goethe's Werther in the press. Newspaper databases of the DACH countries were searched for reports of suicides that the press had connected to Goethe's Werther since 1774. In addition to confirming most suicides that have previously been reported in the literature, eight additional suicides attributed to Goethe's Werther not yet addressed in previous literature were identified in the newspapers. Goethe's Werther was presumably connected to several copycat suicides. However, newspapers reported on the Werther-epidemic itself and the moral implications of glamorizing suicide much more than on specific imitative suicides. Whether the reports identified by this study substantiate a "Werther epidemic" remains up to interpretation. The lack of research on possible further Werther effects elicited by fiction books is discussed.

News Framing and Preference-Based Reinforcement: Evidence from a Real Framing Environment During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

COVID-19 is a news issue that can be covered from many different angles. When reporting, journalists have to select, accentuate, or exclude particular aspects, which, in turn, may evoke a specific, and possibly constricted, perspective in viewers, a phenomenon termed the news-framing effect. Guided by the reinforcing spiral framework, we conducted a multi-study project that investigated the news-framing effect's underlying mechanism by studying the dynamic of self-reinforcing effects. Grounded in a real-life framing environment observed during the pandemic and systematically assessed via a content analysis (study 1) and survey (study 2), we offer supporting evidence for a preference-based reinforcement model by utilizing a combination of the selective exposure (i.e., self-selected exposure) and causal effects (i.e., forced exposure) paradigms within one randomized controlled study (study 3). Self-selection of news content by viewers was a necessary precondition for frame-consistent (reinforcement) effects. Forced exposure did not elicit causal effects in a frame-consistent direction.

Suicide among soldiers and social contagion effects: An interrupted time-series analysis.

BACKGROUND: Suicide has become an increasingly concerning problem among soldiers in recent years. Previous research has hypothesized that media-related social contagion effects, termed "Werther effects," may contribute to military suicide numbers. Unfortunately, there is limited empirical knowledge on such social contagion effects in soldiers. We contribute to the literature by investigating this phenomenon in the context of a specific historical suicide case, allowing us to provide a longitudinal assessment: Crown Prince Rudolf, heir to the Imperial throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, who died by suicide in January 1889. His death was a well-known news story that shook the monarchy to its foundations. Notably, soldiers of the late nineteenth century were an especially vulnerable portion of the population, proven by the fact that the Austro-Hungarian military had one of the highest suicide rates at the time compared to other European countries. METHODS AND RESULTS: An interrupted time-series analysis, relying on annual military suicide rates between 1873 and 1910, indicated a significant increase in the suicide rate the year of Rudolf's death, a pattern consistent with a social contagion effect. In fact, time series analysis estimated that there were about 30 excess suicides per 100,000 population within the year of Rudolf's death. Additionally, we identified a substantial change in the trend after Rudolf's death, pointing to a long-term decrease in military suicide rates. The latter was not observed in the general population but appeared to be unique to soldiers. DISCUSSION: Although we are very careful when interpreting causal effects with our historical data, we discuss the latter finding by questioning whether a change in military culture, that is, the establishment of better conditions for soldiers in the aftermath of Rudolf's suicide, contributed to decreasing suicide numbers. Although tentative, these findings are also highly relevant for the study of military suicide today.

Suicide of a Tenor Amidst the Stage Setting of the Werther Opera's Death Scene.

Background: Reporting on suicide can elicit an increase in suicides, a phenomenon termed the "Werther effect." The name can be traced back to an alleged spike in suicides after the publication of Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther in 1774, in which the protagonist Werther dies by suicide. Aims: Acknowledging the importance and primacy of systematic ecological and individual-level studies, we provide a historical single-case report of the suicide of a "late arrival of the Werther epidemic," as the death was headlined in a news report in 1927. Method: Archival research on tenor Paul Vidal's suicide was conducted. Results: Vidal reconstructed the scene of the final act of the opera Werther in his apartment and died by a gunshot, as did Werther. Limitations: Causal interpretations must be made with caution. Conclusion: Striking similarities between Werther's and Vidal's deaths support the idea of strong identification with the fictional narrative and suggest causal effects. Considering the repeated high level of immersiveness and the intense emotions of opera performances, it is likely that performing the role of Werther increases identification processes, contributing to detrimental effects. The lack of knowledge regarding the role of fictional suicide stories on artists' suicides is discussed.

Celebrity Suicide and Forced Responsible Reporting in the Nineteenth Century: Crown Prince Rudolf and the Absence of a Werther Effect.

Crown Prince Rudolf, heir to the Imperial throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, died by suicide in 1889. His death is a prime example of a historical celebrity suicide. Although news coverage about celebrity suicide has been shown to be linked to increases in suicides - a phenomenon known as the Werther effect -, censorship and/or journalists' anticipatory obedience back then may have led to a form of "forced responsible reporting" that may have prevented a Werther effect. A content analysis was conducted, and civil death registers were used to identify suicides before and after Rudolf's suicide. We compared Rudolf's case with another historical celebrity suicide case (Colonel Redl) for which there is already empirical evidence consistent with a Werther effect. As expected, the press heavily reported on Rudolf's death, but did not give undue prominence to suicide and rarely gave details on the method. Importantly, there was no evidence of an increase in suicides. This is in stark contrast to the Redl case in which the press reported irresponsibly. The Rudolf case emphasizes the importance of current media guidelines on responsible reporting. Thus, a high amount of news coverage does not necessarily translate into a Werther effect.

Celebrity Suicide of a Pre-World War I Spy.

Background: Alfred Redl, a colonel in the Imperial and Royal General Staff and Deputy Director of Military Intelligence for the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was a leading figure of pre-World War I spying. The "spy of the century," as he has been called, died by suicide in Vienna on May 25, 1913. It was a big news story based on espionage, sex, and betrayal. Aim: We aimed to test whether this celebrity suicide elicited an increase in suicides - a phenomenon consistent with the "Werther effect." Method: Given daily suicide numbers were not available, we conducted archival research. Civil death registers for the city of Vienna were used to identify suicides before and after Redl's suicide. Results: The analysis indicated that more people died by suicide in the immediate aftermath and that the quantity of news reporting on Colonel Redl predicted the number of suicides per day - a pattern that is consistent with the Werther effect. Limitations: Causal interpretations are limited. Conclusion: Given the fact that the "Redl affair" is relevant for many scientific disciplines, we discuss multiple contributions to suicide research, history, media research, and research on intelligence and counter-intelligence.

Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic and Stock Price Crashes: A Cross-National Correlational Approach.

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is a serious threat to public health and the economy. Importantly, there was a stock price crash on Monday, March 9, 2020, followed by a similar crash one week later. Leading global indices substantially dropped. Based on previous research indicating that the news media may elicit effects on stock prices, we hypothesized that the amount of news coverage about COVID-19 within a given country would predict the size of the stock price drop in that country. Using data for N = 58 nations from five continents, we observed average stock price drops of 6.57% (week 1) and 6.43% (week 2). Using a cross-national correlational approach, we found a positive relationship between the amount of news coverage about COVID-19 and the extent of the stock price drop. Actual severity within a given country (indicated by the number of confirmed cases and deaths, based on data provided by the World Health Organization) and public attention (indicated by COVID-19-related Internet search engine volume) did not predict the extent of the stock price drop in multivariate analyses. Correlational evidence is consistent with the idea that intensive media reporting on a threatening pandemic with uncertain negative consequences on health, social life, and the economy may provoke substantial reactions in the market, with as yet unknown indirect effects on public health. However, the causal order of media attention and stock price drops should be assessed with caution.

Uncovering Blind Spots in the Intention to Provide Adequate Help to Suicidal Individuals.

Background: An adequate reaction from families, friends, and colleagues who can provide help to suicidal individuals is a preventive factor. Despite the logical assumption that the mere presence of risk factors in individuals needing help may affect others' helping intentions, empirical evidence is lacking in this regard. Method: We tested whether the presence of various risk factors influences the intention to provide help to suicidal individuals. Individuals (N = 890) were exposed to a vignette in which they were asked to imagine meeting a distant acquaintance. Such persons talk about serious problems and suddenly use the word "suicide." In a one-factorial between-subjects design with 21 groups, we manipulated person-related attributes corresponding to risk factors for suicide. Results: Some attributes increased helping intentions: male gender, very young and old age, homosexuality and transsexuality, terminal illness, previous nonsuicidal self-injury, previous suicide attempt, and seeking out lethal means. However, some attributes did not: female gender, major depression, chronic pain, different stressful life events, previously experienced violence, a family history of suicide, and a cry for help. Limitations: We measured self-reported behavioral intentions. Conclusions: Although people seem to adapt their helping intentions in response to some attributes, there seem to be many blind spots.

COVID-19 pandemic, government responses, and public mental health: Investigating consequences through crisis hotline calls in two countries.

RATIONALE: The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is an immense global health threat that has invoked unheard-of containment measures in numerous countries to reduce the number of new infections. OBJECTIVE: The sequential introduction of severe measures, intentionally aiming at reducing the number of new infections, also imposes sharp restrictions on populations with potentially unintended, detrimental effects on public mental health. METHOD: We used observational data reflecting the number of phone calls made to national crisis hotlines in Austria and Germany during the COVID-19 pandemic (January 2020-April 2020) to investigate the impact of government restrictions as well as their later revocations on public mental health. Importantly, both countries have comparable health care systems, are similar in their political and socio-economic idiosyncrasies, and took similar restrictive government measures in order to contain COVID-19-but implemented them at different points in time. RESULTS: Analysis indicated that the number of crisis hotline calls increased in both countries. This increase seemed to occur at around the same time as the implementation of restrictive governmental responses. Importantly, the revocation of these governmental restrictions (i.e., re-opening the economy, allowing more social contact) seemed to occur at around the same time as the decrease in the number of calls. CONCLUSIONS: The present study supports the notion that the implementation of severe measures affects public mental health. However, the negative mental health effects of COVID-19 may be reduced if severe governmental restrictions are kept in place as briefly as possible.