Indirect trauma exposure and secondary traumatic stress among professionals: Mediating role of empathy and cognitive trauma processing. / Posrednia ekspozycja na traume a wtórny stres traumatyczny wsród profesjonalistek: mediacyjna rola empatii i poznawczego przetwarzania traumy.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between indirect trauma exposure, empathy, cognitive trauma processing, and the symptoms of secondary traumatic stress (STS) in women who help people after experiencing violence. METHODS: The results obtained from 154 Polish female professionals representing three professional groups: therapists, social workers and probation officers were analyzed. The age of the respondents ranged from 26 to 67 years. The Secondary Traumatic Stress Inventory, the Empathic Sensitivity Scale, and the Cognitive Trauma Processing Scale were used. In addition, a survey including questions about secondary trauma exposure rates was developed (work experience, number of hours per week devoted to working with people who have experienced the trauma of violence, workload). RESULTS: The results found STS symptoms to be positively correlated with trauma exposure indicators, empathy and cognitive coping strategies. Moreover, cognitive strategies mediate the relationship between indirect trauma exposure and STS symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: To reduce STS symptoms, it may be advisable to use self-care practices more often and to change the cognitive coping strategies from negative to positive.

Secondary traumatic stress among police officers - the relationship with personality and ruminations.

BACKGROUND: Like many professionals who work with victims of trauma, police officers may experience negative consequences expressed in the form of secondary traumatic stress (STS) symptoms. The study aim was to establish the relationship between personality, ruminations (intrusive and deliberate) and secondary traumatic stress symptoms, including the mediating role of ruminations, in a group of police officers exposed to secondary trauma. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE: A group of 235 police officers working, at least partly, with trauma victims were surveyed. The age of the participants ranged from 30 to 60 years (M = 40.79, SD = 3.96). Three questionnaires were used: the Secondary Traumatic Stress Inventory, the NEO Five-Factor Inventory and the Event-Related Rumination Inventory. RESULTS: The results demonstrate a rather low level of STS among police officers. Ruminations, particularly intrusive ones, were more strongly connected with symptoms of STS than personality traits. Neuroticism correlated more strongly with STS than other personality traits, and extraversion was not connected with any negative effects of secondary trauma exposure. The conducted analysis confirmed that ruminations act as mediators in the relationship between neuroticism and STS. CONCLUSIONS: Although the police officers working with trauma victims revealed low levels of STS symptoms, it is nevertheless advisable to ameliorate, if not prevent, them. Interventions should aim to expand the competencies in coping with trauma, including reducing the tendency to ruminate about the traumatic events experienced by clients.

From negative to positive effects of secondary exposure to trauma - the mediating role of cognitive coping strategies.

BACKGROUND: Professionals working with trauma victims can experience both negative and positive effects following exposure to secondary trauma. The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between secondary traumatic stress (STS), secondary posttraumatic growth (SPTG) and cognitive coping strategies and to establish the mediating role of cognitive coping strategies in the relationship between STS and SPTG. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A group of 500 professionals working with trauma survivors were surveyed. The Secondary Traumatic Stress Inventory, the Secondary Posttraumatic Growth Inventory and the Cognitive Processing of Trauma Scale was used. RESULTS: The results indicated that 29% of professionals demonstrate a high intensity of STS, and nearly 34% exhibit a high level of SPTG. Denial and regret were positively correlated with STS; positive cognitive restructuring, resolution/acceptance and downward comparison were positively related to SPTG. Two cognitive coping strategies, i.e., positive cognitive restructuring and downward comparison, were found to act as mediators in the relationship between STS and SPTG. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the effects of secondary exposure to trauma and the coping responses of professionals working with trauma survivors will support the development of prevention and intervention actions aimed at protecting them from the deleterious impact of exposure to secondary trauma at work and promoting secondary posttraumatic growth. Med Pr Work Health Saf. 2023;74(6):449-60.

The mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between social support and the consequences of secondary exposure to trauma among medical providers working with trauma victims.

OBJECTIVES: Medical providers working with trauma survivors are exposed to the negative and positive effects of secondary trauma, both of which are affected by social support and job satisfaction. The aim of this study was to determine the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between social support and the negative and positive effects of secondary exposure to trauma among medical personnel. The negative indicator of such exposure was secondary traumatic stress (STS), while the positive indicator was secondary posttraumatic growth (SPTG). MATERIAL AND METHODS: The analyses included 419 medical providers working with trauma victims (201 paramedics and 218 nurses). Data was collected with the Secondary Traumatic Stress Inventory, Secondary Posttraumatic Growth Inventory, Social Support Scale, Work Satisfaction Scale, and survey. Mediation analyses were applied to assess relationships between variables. RESULTS: The mediation analyses indicated that job satisfaction mediates (mainly partly) the relationship between social support and STS and SPTG. This may indicate that both social support and job satisfaction act as significant predictors of the negative and positive effects of secondary exposure to trauma. CONCLUSIONS: As a friendly and mutually-supportive environment can increase job satisfaction, reducing the risk of secondary traumatic stress and promoting positive posttraumatic changes, it is important to increase social support and job satisfaction among medical providers exposed to secondary trauma. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2023;36(4):505-16.

Basic Characteristics of Dose Distributions of Photons Beam for Radiotherapeutic Applications Using YAG:Ce Crystal Detectors.

Thermostimulated luminescence (TSL) dosimetry is a versatile tool for the assessment of dose from ionizing radiation. In this work, the Ce3+ doped Y3Al5O12 garnet (YAG:Ce) with a density ρ = 4.56 g/cm3 and effective atomic number Zeff = 35 emerged as a prospective TSL material in radiotherapy applications due to its excellent radiation stability, uniformity of structural and optical properties, high yield of TSL, and good position of main glow peak around 290-300 °C. Namely, the set of TSL detectors produced from the YAG:Ce single crystal is used for identification of the uniformity of dose and energy spectra of X-ray radiation generated by the clinical accelerator with 6 MV and 15 MV beams located in Radiotherapy Department at the Oncology Center in Bydgoszcz, Poland. We have found that the YAG:Ce crystal detects shows very promising results for registration of X-ray radiation generated by the accelerator with 6 MV beam. The next step in the research is connected with application of TSL detectors based on the crystals of much heavier garnets than YAG. It is estimated that the LuAG:Ce garnet crystals with high density ρ = 6.0 g/cm3 and Zeff = 62 can be used to evaluate the X-rays produced by the accelerator with the 15 MV beam.

The role of empathy and cognitive trauma processing in the occurrence of professional posttraumatic growth among women working with victims of violence.

OBJECTIVES: Professionals helping victims of violence trauma, in addition to a number of negative effects, may also experience positive changes in the form of vicarious posttraumatic growth (VPTG). Cognitive trauma processing and empathy seem to be important to VPTG. The aim was to determine the relationship between empathy, cognitive trauma processing and VPTG in female professionals helping violence victims. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included 154 women representing 3 professional groups (therapists, social workers, probation officers). The subjects' age ranged 26-67 years (M±SD 43.98±10.83). The study used 3 standard measurement tools, i.e. the Secondary Posttraumatic Growth Inventory, the Empathic Sensitiveness Scale, measuring 3 aspects of empathy, i.e. empathic concern, personal distress and perspective taking, the Cognitive Processing of Trauma Scale, allowing assessment of 5 remedial strategies (positive cognitive restructuring, downward comparison, resolution/acceptance, denial, regret) and a survey developed for the use of the research. RESULTS: Positive correlations were found between empathy, cognitive coping strategies and VPTG. Positive cognitive restructuring and resolution/acceptance strategies were found to mediate the relationship between empathy and VPTG. CONCLUSIONS: Professionals helping trauma victims may experience positive effects in the form of VPTG. The occurrence of VPTG in female professionals is enhanced by the use of empathy and positive coping strategies. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2022;35(6):679-92.

The Relationship between Social Support and Secondary Posttraumatic Growth among Health Care Providers Working with Trauma Victims-The Mediating Role of Cognitive Processing.

BACKGROUND: Individuals, who help trauma victims as part of their professional responsibilities, may experience positive effects of their work, occurring in the form of Secondary Posttraumatic Growth (SPTG). Its determinants include environmental factors such as social support, and individual characteristics, particularly cognitive processing of the trauma. The purpose of this study was to determine the associations between SPTG and social support and cognitive processing of trauma, also considered as a mediator, in a group of medical personnel exposed to secondary trauma. METHODS: The results of 408 participants, paramedics and nurses, were analyzed. Three measurement tools were used: the Secondary Posttraumatic Growth Inventory, the Social Support Scale measuring four sources of support and the Cognitive Trauma Processing Scale to assess five cognitive coping strategies. RESULTS: The results indicated that SPTG was positively related to social support and cognitive coping strategies. Cognitive coping strategies act as a mediator in the relationship between social support and SPTG. CONCLUSIONS: Despite their exposure to secondary traumatization, paramedics and nursing staff experience positive consequences of their work related to helping injured people. In order to promote growth after trauma, it is advisable to encourage medical representatives to use social support and primarily positive coping strategies.

The Mediating Role of Cognitive Trauma Processing in the Relationship Between Empathy and Secondary Traumatic Stress Symptoms Among Female Professionals Working With Victims of Violence.

One of the negative consequences of indirect trauma exposure is secondary traumatic stress (STS). Professionals helping victims of violence may be at the risk of STS symptoms development. Both empathy and cognitive processing of trauma seem to be important in this process. The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between empathy, cognitive processing of trauma and symptoms of STS in women working with people who have experienced violence trauma. The mediation role of cognitive coping strategies in the relationship between empathy and STS was also checked. A total of 154 female professionals representing three groups (therapists, social workers, and probation officers) were included in the study. The age of the respondents ranged from 26 to 67 years (M = 43.98, SD = 10.83). Three standard measurement tools were included in the study: the modified PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5), the Empathic Sensitivity Scale, and the Cognitive Processing of Trauma Scale. Correlational analysis indicated STS to have positive associations (Pearson's correlation coefficients) with all three aspects of empathy, and three of the five cognitive coping strategies (denial, regret, downward comparison). Mediation analysis performed by the bootstrapping method found strategies of regret and downward comparison to act as mediators in the relationship between STS and empathic concern. The same results were obtained for perspective taking. In addition, the regret and denial strategies mediated the relationship between personal distress and STS. Empathy and cognitive trauma processing may play an important role in STS symptoms development. Preventive programs for professionals helping trauma victims should focus on cognitive processing of trauma and empathy.

Prevalence and determinants of secondary posttraumatic growth following trauma work among medical personnel: a cross sectional study.

Background: People helping trauma victims as a part of their work may experience positive results, known as Secondary Posttraumatic Growth (SPTG). Aim: The present study aimed to determine the prevalence and determinants of SPTG among medical personnel, considering occupational load, job satisfaction, social support, and cognitive processing of trauma, understood as cognitive coping strategies. Methods: Subjects comprised 419 representatives of the medical profession, including paramedics and nurses. The age of the subjects varied from 19 to 65 (M = 39.60; SD = 11.03). Four standard measurement tools were utilized: the Secondary Posttraumatic Growth Inventory, the Job Satisfaction Scale, the Social Support Scale, which measured four support sources, and the Cognitive Processing of Trauma Scale to assess five cognitive coping strategies. Pearson's correlation coefficients were applied to analyse the connections between the variables. A linear stepwise regression analysis was used to identify the determinants of SPTG. Pearson's correlation coefficients with confidence intervals were applied to analyse the connections between the variables. Results: As many as 40% of participants experienced high levels of growth, with only 27.4% indicating a low level. The obtained results showed positive links between job satisfaction, all social support dimensions (from supervisors, co-workers, family, friends), all cognitive coping strategies (positive cognitive restructuring, downward comparison, resolution/acceptance, denial, regret), and SPTG. No significant connection between workload and SPTG total was discovered. The primary determinant of SPTG in the examined group of medical personnel is the cognitive processing of trauma, chiefly the strategy of positive cognitive restructuring. Conclusions: Paramedics and nurses, despite their exposure to secondary trauma, experience positive posttraumatic consequences of the profession that entails helping the injured parties. It is advisable to encourage the medical personnel to apply positive coping strategies, find satisfaction in their work, and benefit from social support to promote posttraumatic growth.

Antecedentes: Las personas que ayudan a las víctimas del trauma como parte de su trabajo pueden experimentar resultados positivos conocidos como crecimiento postraumático secundario (CPTS).Objetivo: Este estudio busca determinar la prevalencia y los determinantes del CPTS entre personal médico, considerando la carga ocupacional, satisfacción con el trabajo, soporte social y procesamiento cognitivo del trauma, comprendido como las estrategias cognitivas de afrontamiento.Métodos: Los participantes incluían a 419 representantes de grupos de profesionales de la salud, incluyendo a paramédicos y a enfermeros. La edad de los participantes variaba entre los 19 y los 65 años (M=39.69; SD=11.03). Se emplearon cuatro instrumentos de medición estándar: el Inventario del Crecimiento Postraumático Secundario, la Escala de Satisfacción Laboral, la Escala de Soporte Social ­ que medía cuatro dimensiones de soporte ­, y la Escala de Procesamiento Cognitivo del Trauma para evaluar cinco estrategias de afrontamiento cognitivo. Se aplicaron los coeficientes de correlación de Pearson para analizar las conexiones entre las variables. Se empleó un análisis de regresión linear para identificar los determinantes del CPTS.Resultados: Un 40% de los participantes experimentó altos niveles de crecimiento, con solo un 27,4% indicando un nivel bajo. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron relaciones positivas entre la satisfacción laboral, todas las dimensiones del soporte social (de los supervisores, de colegas, de la familia y de los amigos), todas las estrategias de afrontamiento cognitivo (reestructuración cognitiva positiva, comparación social a la baja, resolución/aceptación, negación, arrepentimiento) y el CPTS. No se descubrió alguna conexión entre la carga laboral y el CPTS. El principal determinante del CPTS en el grupo de personal de la salud estudiado fue el procesamiento cognitivo del trauma, la estrategia capital de la reestructuración cognitiva positiva.Conclusiones: Los paramédicos y los enfermeros, a pesar de su exposición al trauma secundario, experimentan consecuencias postraumáticas positivas de la profesión que devienen del ayudar a personas heridas. Es aconsejable animar al personal de la salud a aplicar estrategias de afrontamiento positivas, encontrar satisfacción en su trabajo y que se beneficien del soporte social que promueve el crecimiento postraumático.

Prevalence and predictors of secondary traumatic stress symptoms in health care professionals working with trauma victims: A cross-sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Medical personnel is an occupational group that is especially prone to secondary traumatic stress. The factors conditioning its occurrence include organizational and work-related factors, as well as personal features and traits. The aim of this study was to determine Secondary Traumatic Stress (STS) indicators in a group of medical personnel, considering occupational load, job satisfaction, social support, and cognitive processing of trauma. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Results obtained from 419 medical professionals, paramedics and nurses, were analyzed. The age of study participants ranged from 19 to 65 (M = 39.60, SD = 11.03). A questionnaire developed for this research including questions about occupational indicators as well as four standard evaluation tools: Secondary Traumatic Stress Inventory, Job Satisfaction Scale, Social Support Scale which measures four support sources (supervisors, coworkers, family, friends) and Cognitive Processing of Trauma Scale which allows to evaluate cognitive coping strategies (positive cognitive restructuring, downward comparison, resolution/acceptance, denial, regret) were used in the study. RESULTS: The results showed that the main predictor of STS symptoms in the studied group of medical personnel is job satisfaction. Two cognitive strategies also turned out to be predictors of STS, that is regret (positive relation) and resolution/acceptance (negative relation). The contribution of other analyzed variables, i.e., denial, workload and social support to explaining the dependent variable is rather small. CONCLUSIONS: Paramedics and nurses are at the high risk of indirect traumatic exposure and thus may be more prone to secondary traumatic stress symptoms development. It is important to include the medical personnel in the actions aiming at prevention and reduction of STS symptoms.

Psychological resilience and secondary traumatic stress in nurses working with terminally ill patients-The mediating role of job burnout.

Working with terminally ill patients is regarded as a stressful or traumatic event and may lead to negative outcomes, including job burnout and secondary traumatic stress (STS). Psychological resilience might protect employees from the negative consequences of stress. The aim of this study was to determine the mediating role of job burnout in the relationship between psychological resilience and STS. The study included 72 nurses aged from 22 to 72 years old (M = 46.01, SD = 10.69), working with terminally ill patients. The recipients completed 3 questionnaires: the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale, the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory, and the Resilience Measurement. The results reveal negative associations between resilience, job burnout, and secondary traumatic stress, and a positive correlation between secondary traumatic stress and job burnout. Mediation analysis showed that job burnout plays a mediating role in the relationship between psychological resilience and secondary traumatic stress. Our findings highlight the role played by job burnout in the manifestation of STS. Professional and nonprofessional interventions for individuals experiencing work-related traumatic stress would benefit from interventions that build personal resources. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The Mediating Role of Cognitive Processing in the Relationship Between Negative and Positive Effects of Trauma Among Female Victims of Domestic Violence.

Exposure to domestic violence may lead not only to negative but also positive consequences of trauma. Negative effects are indicated by posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSSs), and positive effects by posttraumatic growth (PTG) changes. PTG has been conceptualized to follow experiences of PTSSs. Therefore, the positive and negative effects of trauma appear to be related to one another. The cognitive processing may play a special role in determining whether the positive and negative consequences of trauma exposure are experienced. The aim of the study was to establish the mediating role of multiple patterns of cognitive processing, reflected by the cognitive strategies used to cope with trauma, in the relationship between negative and positive posttraumatic changes in women following domestic violence. Data were obtained from 63 Polish women who had experienced domestic violence. The age of the respondents ranged from 19 to 71 years (M = 42.25, SD = 14.81). The Polish versions of the following standardized tools were used: the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL-5), the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI), and the Cognitive Processing of Trauma Scale (CPOTS). PTSS severity appeared to be negatively related to that of PTG. Negative coping strategies were positively related to the PTSS severity but negatively to PTG, while positive strategies were negatively related to the PTSS severity but positively to PTG. Cognitive strategies for coping with trauma, such as resolution/acceptance, downward comparison, and regret, appeared to play a mediating role in the relationship between PTSS severity and PTG. Positive coping strategies strengthen the occurrence of positive posttraumatic changes while strategy of regret weakens the PTG changes occurrence. The process of adaptation and human development among people who have experienced traumatic events is favored by the use of more frequent positive and less frequent negative strategies of dealing with trauma.

The Role of Satisfaction With Job and Cognitive Trauma Processing in the Occurrence of Secondary Traumatic Stress Symptoms in Medical Providers Working With Trauma Victims.

Introduction: As an occupational group, medical providers working with victims of trauma are prone to negative consequences of their work, particularly secondary traumatic stress (STS) symptoms. Various factors affect susceptibility to STS, including work-related and organizational determinants, as well as individual differences. The aim of the study was to establish the mediating role of cognitive trauma processing in the relationship between job satisfaction and STS symptoms among medical providers. Procedure and Participants: Results were obtained from 419 healthcare providers working with victims of trauma (218 nurses and 201 paramedics). Three questionnaires, namely the Secondary Traumatic Stress Inventory, Work Satisfaction Scale, and Cognitive Trauma Processing Scale, were used in the study, as well as a survey developed for this research. Correlational and mediation analyses were applied to assess relations between variables. Results: The results showed significant links between STS symptoms and both job satisfaction and cognitive processing of trauma. Three cognitive coping strategies play the intermediary role in the relationship between job satisfaction and symptoms of secondary traumatic stress. However, this role varies depending on preferred strategies. Conclusion: Nurses and paramedics are significantly exposed to the occurrence of STS. Thus, it is important to engage health care providers in activities aimed at preventing and reducing symptoms of STS.

[The value system of Polish drivers in the context of road safety - a research report]. / System wartosci polskich kierowców a bezpieczenstwo na drodze. Raport z badan.

BACKGROUND: The main objective of the research was to describe the hierarchy of values of drivers, with particular emphasis on the values relevant to road safety - personal safety, social security, humility and adaptation to rules, as well as the relationship between them and the number of accidents and collisions in which drivers participated. The additional goal was to determine the significance of variables (age, sex, seniority in driving, education, staying in a relationship, the number of children) for the hierarchy of drivers' values. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The Portrait Value Questionnaire (PVQ) by Shalom Schwartz, in the Polish adaptation by Cieciuch, was applied. The research was conducted on a group of 704 drivers of both sexes (356 women and 348 men), aged: 18-77 years, of whom 303 people were asked about the number of accidents and collisions in which they had participated or which they had caused. RESULTS: The drivers that took part in the research valued kindness and safety to a large extent, but the need for self-determination, especially in men and young drivers, prevailed over the value of discipline. The number of accidents and collisions turned out to be important for the valuation of security in the social context, with the observed interdependence being bi-directional. Among the variables controlled for the hierarchy of values, drivers' age and gender of were of particular importance. CONCLUSIONS: The hierarchy of values of the examined drivers indicates the appreciation for kindness and safety, to a large extent, and the value of discipline (humility and respect for rules), but the need for self-determination (self-management), especially in men and young drivers, was found to prevail. The main limitation of this research was the data collection method based solely on self-reports, as a result of which the obtained results may be burdened with the need to gain social approval. Med Pr. 2020;71(2):137-52.

The Relationship Between Emotional Processing Deficits and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Among Breast Cancer Patients: The Mediating Role of Rumination.

Cognitive activity, manifested as trauma-related ruminative thinking, and deficits in emotional processing are believed to perpetuate the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The aim of this study was to determine the mediating role of rumination in the relationship between emotional processing difficulties and PTSD symptoms. Data from 60 women aged from 40 to 67 (mean 58.0; SD 6.97) with breast cancer diagnosis were analyzed. The participants completed three questionnaires: the Impact of Event Scale-Revised to assess PTSD symptoms, the Event Related Rumination Inventory to measure intrusive and deliberate rumination, and the Emotional Processing Scale to assess emotional processing deficits. The results reveal positive associations between emotional processing deficits, cancer-related rumination, and PTSD symptoms. Mediation analysis indicated that intrusive rumination plays a mediating role in the relationship between difficulties in emotional processing and PTSD symptoms. The findings highlight the role played by cognitive and emotional processes in the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms.

Preferences and expectations among Polish women regarding prenatal screening.

OBJECTIVES: Patients' attitudes and expectations of prenatal screening for genetic abnormalities throughout pregnancy arerarely analyzed by researchers as emotions and fears are both important and challenging factors. Prenatal counselling hasnever been so difficult as we live in the era of detailed ultrasound scans, cell-free fetal DNA and detailed microarray testing.The aim of this study was to investigate Polish women's attitudes towards screening for chromosomal abnormalities andfetal defects. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was a prospective survey conducted among a population of Polish women. An electronicquestionnaire regarding prenatal diagnostics was distributed to a total number of 1072 female volunteers. RESULTS: 1044 patients (97.30%) stated that they were motivated to undergo prenatal diagnostics and would want to beinformed about fetal abnormalities. Over 90% of the respondents would want to be informed about serious defects witha high mortality rate (including trisomy 13 or 18). More than half the Polish women (54.83%) stated they were willing toconsider terminating pregnancy in the case of a severe abnormality. CONCLUSIONS: Polish women expect prenatal screening. Almost all Polish women would want to be informed about bothgenetic and anatomical abnormalities and over half of them would consider terminating pregnancy in the case of a severeabnormality. Willingness to learn about a defect increased with average household income, and the statement of a will toterminate pregnancy depended mostly on maternal age and type of fetal abnormality.