[Regional Deprivation in Germany: Nation-wide Analysis of its Association with Mortality Using the German Index of Multiple Deprivation (GIMD)]. / Regionale Deprivation in Deutschland: Bundesweite Analyse des Zusammenhangs mit Mortalität unter Verwendung des 'German Index of Multiple Deprivation (GIMD)'.

BACKGROUND: Deprivation indices are increasingly being used to assess the effects of contextual factors on health. In Germany, the recently developed 'German Index of Multiple Deprivation (GIMD)' integrates various dimensions of regional deprivation. We aim to assess the validity of the GIMD through a recalculation using more recent rural and urban district level data and by analysing its association with mortality at the national level. METHODS: We calculated a new version of the GIMD based on data from 2007 to 2010 for all 412 rural and urban districts in Germany. Mortality was quantified using indirectly standardised mortality ratios (SMRs). Correlation analyses and Poisson regression analyses were used to assess the association between the GIMD scores and total mortality, as well as premature mortality (< 65 years). RESULTS: Correlation analyses showed a positive association between the GIMD and both total mortality (p<0.001) and premature mortality (p<0.001). In the Poisson regression analyses, rural and urban districts in the quintile with the highest deprivation showed a significantly elevated risk of total mortality (RR: 1.29; 95% CI: 1.28-1.30) as well as premature mortality (RR: 1.50; 95% CI: 1.47-1.53), compared to the districts in the lowest quintile. CONCLUSION: The association between regional deprivation and mortality has already been shown for the federal state of Bavaria. Using more recent data, this relationship could be confirmed here for Germany as a whole. The GIMD has been shown to be able to effectively assess regional deprivation. Concerning public health policy, the significant, positive and stable association between regional deprivation and mortality indicates an increased need for health care provision particularly in the most deprived districts. Further studies should examine, for example, whether and how the allocation of districts to quintiles of regional deprivation changes over time, and how this affects mortality.

[Social Differences in Physical Activity among Adolescents in Germany: Analyses Based on Information Concerning the Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET)]. / Soziale Unterschiede in der körperlich-sportlichen Aktivität bei Jugendlichen: Analyse der MoMo-Daten mithilfe der metabolischen Äquivalente (MET).

Introduction: Energy consumption, i. e., the metabolic equivalent of task (MET), provides a precise assessment of physical activity (PA). Studies on social inequalities of PA have hardly used this possibility, however. Methods: The analyses are based on the 'Motorik-Modul (MoMo) of the KiGGS study (German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents) conducted between 2003 and 2006 (n=1 757; age group 11-17 years). PA has been assessed in 3 settings (sport club in school, other sport club, leisure time). 3 dependent variables were distinguished by combining the following criteria: at least 21 MET-hours per week, intensity between 3 and 6 METs, at least 7 hours a week. The main independent variables are: type of school and socioeconomic status (SES) of the parents. 'Two part models' have been used to assess social difference in PA among those who are physically active. Results: PA is much more common in the higher SES groups. Looking at the MET-hours, though, there are just little differences among those who are physically active (regressions coefficient for low vs. high SES: 1.15; 95% conf. interv. 0.99-1.33). Conclusion: Social differences can be seen mainly for the proportion of adolescents being physically active, not for the extent of PA among those who are physically active. Therefore, the central request should be to increase the proportion of adolescents performing any PA in the low SES group.

[Health Status of Persons without Health Insurance and of Undocumented Migrants: Analysis of Data from the Malteser Migranten Medizin (MMM) in Munich, Germany]. / Gesundheitszustand von Menschen ohne Krankenversicherung und von Menschen ohne legalen Aufenthaltsstatus: Analyse von Daten der Malteser Migranten Medizin (MMM) in München.

INTRODUCTION: It is estimated that more than 100,000 persons are without health insurance in Germany. The number of undocumented migrants is roughly estimated to be about 40,000. There are hardly any empirical studies looking at health care provision for these population groups, it is even rarely stressed that more empirical studies are needed. There seems to be a major gap concerning perception and research. The present study aims at promoting this discussion by presenting analyses based on data from an institution providing health care for these population groups, i. e., the Malteser Migranten Medizin (MMM) in Munich. METHODS: Data were available from all patients coming to MMM between January 2009 and October 2012 (i. e., from 2,352 visits altogether). The following information is available for each visit: date, sex, age group, country of origin, residence permit status (3 groups), diagnosis (ICD-10 chapter), type of health care (4 broad groups). Multivariate analyses have been conducted for simultaneous control of these variables. In order to compare these data with information from the general population, data from a large statutory sickness fund have been included as well. RESULTS: Focusing first on the MMM patients, the analyses showed large differences concerning diagnoses by country of origin and by residence permit status. We were not able, however, to confirm the hypothesis that mental health problems are especially common among undocumented migrants. The comparison with the general population indicated, surprisingly, that MMM patients showed a very similar spectrum of diagnoses as compared with the general population. CONCLUSION: The data from MMM do not allow a precise assessment of health care need, they still indicate, though, how different the patients are who seek help. MMM offers a broad range of health care, but it is hardly possible to meet the manifold demands of all the patients; there is no psychotherapist, for example. The resources available at MMM will always just allow a very limited provision of health care. It would be important to promote the integration of persons without health insurance and for undocumented migrants into the general system of statutory sickness funds.

[Are health inequalities increasing with time? Results of a literature review and recommendations for further research]. / Nimmt die gesundheitliche Ungleichheit zu? Ergebnisse eines Literaturreviews und Empfehlungen für die weitere Forschung.

It has been shown that socio-economic status (SES) and health are closely linked to one another. Now we focus on further questions, and one of the most important ones is whether these "health inequalities" increase with time. In Germany, there is little discussion about this question and no review summarising the empirical evidence is available.This review focuses on 4 dimensions: time trends of health inequalities concerning mortality (or, respectively, life expectancy), self-rated health, smoking and obesity. First we included all empirical analyses from Germany, and all analyses from other European countries published between 2008 and 2012. Then, step-wise, 44 studies (including 5 from Germany) were selected by predefined criteria for a detailed -description of empirical results and methods.The number of publications has strong-ly increased in recent years, illustrating the growing interest in time trends of health inequalities. The empirical results of the 44 studies could be summarised in the following way: All in all, 184 empirical results are reported about time trends in health inequalities and 112 of them show increasing inequalities; decreasing inequalities are shown in 13 reports. The studies from Germany point in the same direction (i. e., most results indicate increasing health inequalities). It is also important to stress that there is great -heterogeneity concerning the methodical approaches. Some studies analyse health inequalities by individual socio-economic status (e. g., educational level), others by regional deprivation. Sometimes changes in the extent of health inequalities over time are not calculated explicitly. Some papers do not include absolute and relative measures of inequalities, but just one of them.In Germany, there is a need for more empirical studies looking at time trends of health inequalities; the available datasets should be used more often for this type of analysis. If possible, further studies should include individual SES and regional deprivation, measures of absolute and relative inequality (stratified by sex, with significance tests for time trend), and they should cover as many points in time as possible. Also, it would be important to relate the chang-es in health inequalities to the other changes in the society.

[Health inequalities and cost-effectiveness: what do important health policy actors say about this potential conflict situation?]. / Gesundheitliche Chancengleichheit und Kosten-Effektivität: Was sagen wichtige gesundheitspolitische Akteure zu diesem potentiellen Zielkonflikt?

The German statutory health-care system is based on the principle of solidarity and thus it is committed to the objective of 'equal chances'. From an economic perspective it is also important to emphasise that scarcity of resources continuously pushes the services towards cost control and towards increasing cost-effect-iveness. There could be conflicts between the 2 objectives 'equal chances' and 'cost-effectiveness', of course, for example if measures for increasing cost-effectiveness lead to increased financial burdens of the insured. To date it has not been studied if and how this potential conflict is discussed in Germany.In a first step we searched for German publications discussing this potential conflict focusing on 3 major public health journals (Das Gesundheitswesen, Bundesgesundheitsblatt, Ethik in der Medizin) and on the internet portal "gerechte-gesundheit.de". For the main part of the paper, we looked for publications from 4 major health policy actors (Bundesärztekammer, Zentrale Ethikkommission bei der Bundesärztekammer, Deutscher Ethikrat, Sachverständigenrat zur Begutachtung der Entwicklung im Gesundheitswesen). All papers published since the year 2000 were included in the system-atic qualitative analysis.The analyses show that the potential conflict between 'equal chances' and 'cost-effectiveness' is rarely discussed in any detail, at most in an implicit way. It would be important, though, to have an explicit discussion, supported by scientifically based analyses and recommendations. One step towards this objective could be, for example, a closer cooperation between social-epidemiologists and health--economists.

[Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes: Evidence-Based Patient Information--A Randomised Controlled Trial]. / Effekt einer evidenzbasierten Patienteninformation zur Prävention von Typ 2-Diabetes.

The aim of this study was to compare the effect of our newly developed online evidence-based patient information (EBPI) vs. standard patient information about subthreshold elevated blood glucose levels and primary prevention of diabetes on informed patient decision-making. EBPI significantly improved knowledge about elevated glucose levels, but also increased decisional conflict and critical attitudes to screening and treatment options. The intention to undergo metabolic screening decreased as a result.

[Living conditions: stumbling block or path to successful ageing? Results of the Augsburg regional conference "Living environment, age and health"]. / Wohnumfeld - Stolperstein oder Weg zum gesunden Altern? Ergebnisse der Augsburger Regionalkonferenz "Wohnumfeld, Alter und Gesundheit".

In addition to good medical care, living environment is of central importance in encouraging social participation among older people. Therefore, municipalities should prioritise the age-appropriate design of living environments. Results of the KORA Age study were presented at the regional conference "Living environment, age and health" in the Augsburg town hall on October 1, 2013. The results on participation and living environment were discussed with local policy makers and senior citizens' representatives from Augsburg and two surrounding regions. The study examined the impact of living environment on participation using two different approaches: qualitative findings from focus group discussions and quantitative findings based on telephone interviews and the use of a geographic information system. The results were complemented by contributions from a regional and national perspective. It was stressed in the closing discussion that a senior-friendly living environment can only be created by using a broad range of different measures. On the one hand physical barriers need to be removed, while at the same time the sense of community, neighborhood cohesion and solidarity should be encouraged further.

[Widening health inequalities? Time trends concerning self-rated health, smoking and obesity between 1984/1985 and 1999/2000 among adults in Augsburg]. / Nimmt die gesundheitliche Ungleichheit zu? : Trends beim subjektiven Gesundheitszustand, beim Rauchen und bei Adipositas zwischen 1984/85 und 1999/2000 bei Erwachsenen in Augsburg.

The analyses focused on time trends in health inequalities in the 25 to 64-year-old population of Augsburg. The analyses are based on four independent cross-sectional surveys from the MONICA/KORA study covering 15 years: 1984/1985 (n = 4,022), 1989/1990 (n = 3,966), 1994/1995 (n = 3,916) and 1999/2000 (n = 3,492). Socioeconomic status (SES) was assessed by educational level and per capita household income with separate analyses for each of these two variables. Both absolute and relative health inequalities were calculated. The results showed that inequalities in self-rated health did not change very much (with some indications for increasing inequalities). However, concerning smoking the results clearly pointed towards increasing health inequalities (for example concerning relative inequalities among women by educational level: significant increase from survey to survey of about 20 %). The prevalence of obesity was increased in all SES groups but the inequalities did not change very much. These time trends show that the efforts aimed at reducing health inequalities should be intensified.

['Walkability' and physical activity - results of empirical studies based on the 'Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Scale (NEWS)']. / 'Walkability' und körperliche Aktivität - Stand der empirischen Forschung auf Basis der 'Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Scale (NEWS)'

OBJECTIVE: 'Walkability' is mainly assessed by the NEWS questionnaire (Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Scale); in Germany this questionnaire is widely unknown. We now try to fill this gap by providing a systematic overview of empirical studies based on the NEWS. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted concerning original papers including empirical analyses based on the NEWS. The results are summarised and presented in tables. RESULTS: Altogether 31 publications could be identified. Most of them focus on associations with the variable 'physical activity', and they often report significant associations with at least some of the scales included in the NEWS. Due to methodological differences between the studies it is difficult to compare the results. CONCLUSION: The concept of 'walkability' should also be established in the German public health discussion. A number of methodological challenges remain to be solved, such as the identification of those scales and items in the NEWS that show the strongest associations with individual health behaviours.

[Direct costs of diabetes mellitus in Germany: first estimation of the differences related to educational level]. / Direkte Krankheitskosten von Diabetes mellitus in Deutschland: erste Abschätzung der Unterschiede zwischen Bildungsgruppen.

OBJECTIVE: There are many studies on health inequalities, but these are rarely combined with cost-of-illness analyses. If the cost-of-illness were to be calculated for the individual status groups, it would be possible to assess the economic potential of preventive measures aimed specifically at people from low status groups. The objective of this article is to demonstrate for the first time the preventive potential by taking the example of diabetes mellitus (DM) from an economic perspective. METHODS: Based on a systematic literature review, the average direct costs per patient with DM were assessed. Then, the prevalence of DM among adults with different educational levels was estimated based on the nationwide survey 'German Health Update' (GEDA), conducted by the Robert Koch-Institute in Germany in 2009. Finally, the cost and prevalence data were used to calculate the direct costs for each educational level. RESULTS: The direct costs of DM amount to about 13.1 billion € per year; about 35% of these costs can be attributed to patients with a low educational level. Thus, their share of the total costs is about 67% higher than their share of the total population. If the prevalence in the group with 'low educational level' (14.8%) could be reduced to the prevalence in the group with 'middle educational level' (7.9%), this would save about 2.2 billion (about 16.5%) € of direct costs. DISCUSSION: The analysis provides a first estimate of the potential savings from an effective status specific prevention programme. However, the direct costs per patient used were only an average for all people with DM, as a breakdown by educational level was not available. Since education can also affect health behaviour and compliance, which are also determinants of cost, the analyses presented here are probably conservative.

[Identification of city areas with an urgent need for early help in Munich: presentation of a new procedure on the basis of data on regional social structures and on the health risks of newborn babies]. / Ermittlung von Stadtgebieten mit hohem Bedarf an Frühen Hilfen in München: Vorstellung eines neuen Verfahrens auf Basis von Daten zur regionalen Sozialstruktur und zum gesundheitlichen Risiko von Neugeborenen.

BACKGROUND: In Germany, it is forbidden by law to physically punish children or to harm them mentally. Breaking these rules can result in severe health problems for the children. Home visiting programmes for families with young children are aimed at supporting young families who are facing large social problems, and at enhancing the chances of their children to grow up in a healthy way. Maps showing the regional distribution of the need for these home visiting programmes could be an important tool for local health policy planning. They could help to focus the resources on those families who are in greatest need. METHODS: The method proposed here for developing such a regional map is based on the following steps: (a) search for data that indicate the potential for child neglect, maltreatment or abuse, and that are available for each zip code in the city of Munich, Germany; (b) based on these data, calculation of a summary score that could indicate high need for these home visits; (c) grouping of the zip code areas according to this score; (d) presentation of the regional distribution in a map. RESULTS: After inspecting different data sources, we could identify 5 variables that could indicate the need for these home visits and that are available for each zip code: index of purchasing power, percentage of the population with low education, percentage of the population with migration background, percentage of single mothers, percentage of new-borns with low birth weight (<2 500 g). If 'high need' is defined as 'upper quintile of at least 3 among the 5 variables listed above, about 1 087 newborn babies would have to be visited per year (i. e., 10% of all newborn infants in Munich). CONCLUSION: These home visits should be as little stigmatising as possible, and especially those families should be reached that are in greatest need. If it is not possible to reach all families in the community, it can be recommended to focus on city districts with a high percentage of families in greatest need. As far as we know, this is the first scientifically based method for such a definition of city districts. The method proposed here could serve as starting point, and it would be important to develop it further. It is very flexible, though, and it can easily be transferred to other cities or districts.

The impact of regional deprivation and individual socio-economic status on the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes in Germany. A pooled analysis of five population-based studies.

AIM: Our objective was to test the hypothesis that the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes increases with increasing regional deprivation even after controlling for individual socio-economic status. METHODS: We pooled cross-sectional data from five German population-based studies. The data set contained information on n = 11,688 study participants (men 50.1%) aged 45-74 years, of whom 1008 people had prevalent Type 2 diabetes (men 56.2%). Logistic multilevel regression was performed to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for diabetes prevalence. We controlled for sex, age and lifestyle risk factors, individual socio-economic status and regional deprivation, based on a new small-area deprivation measure, the German Index of Multiple Deprivation. RESULTS: Adjusted for sex, age, body mass index (BMI), physical activity, smoking status and alcohol consumption, the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes showed a stepwise increase in risk with increasing area deprivation [OR 1.88 (95% CI 1.16-3.04) in quintile 4 and OR 2.14 (95% CI 1.29-3.55) in quintile 5 compared with the least deprived quintile 1], even after controlling for individual socio-economic status. Focusing on individual socio-economic status alone, the risk of having diabetes was significantly higher for low compared with medium or high educational level [OR 1.46 (95% CI 1.24-1.71)] and for the lowest compared with the highest income group [OR 1.53 (95% CI 1.18-1.99)]. CONCLUSION: Regional deprivation plays a significant part in the explanation of diabetes prevalence in Germany independently of individual socio-economic status. The results of the present study could help to target public health measures in deprived regions.

[Association between the social status of city districts and health risks: multilevel analyses concerning the regional distribution of overweight, hypertension and self-rated health in Augsburg, Germany]. / Zusammenhang zwischen dem sozialen status eines stadtgebietes und den gesundheitlichen risiken seiner bewohner: ergebnisse einer mehrebenenanalyse zu übergewicht, hypertonie und gesundheitszustand am beispiel Augsburg.

INTRODUCTION: In empirical studies it has repeatedly been shown that the socioeconomic status (SES) of a region could infl uence the health status of its inhabitants, even if measures of individual SES are controlled for. This research has just started in Germany, but most studies focus on large geographical areas such as rural districts. Taking the example of districts in the city of Augsburg, the analyses focus on the question if these associations can also be found in a small-scale regional comparison. METHODS: We included 1 888 participants of the KORA S4 Survey aged 25-74 years. The city districts were grouped according to the unemployment rate (low, medium, high). The dependent variables were self-rated health and 3 risk factors (obesity, high waist-hip ratio, hypertension). Additional individual variables included are age, sex, educational level and unemployment. The analyses were based on multilevel logistic regressions. RESULTS: After adjustment for individual level variables (age, sex, education, unemployment), the analyses show a signifi cantly increased risk of 'high waist-hip ratio' in the regions with the highest unemployment rate (OR 1.53; 95 % conf. interval 1.03-2.26). A similar association was found for obesity. No signifi cant association was observed between unemployment rate on the one hand and hypertension and self-rated health on the other. CONCLUSION: Some health risks seem to be especially high in city districts characterised by a high unemployment rate. It can be concluded that interventions aimed at reducing these risks should focus on districts with high unemployment rates. Further studies are needed for an understanding of the causes behind the social and regional inequalities shown here.

[Inequalities in health risks, morbidity and health care of children by health insurance of their parents (statutory vs. private health insurance): results of the German KiGGS study]. / Unterschiede bei Gesundheitsrisiken, Morbidität und gesundheitlicher Versorgung zwischen Kindern GKV- bzw. PKV-versicherter Eltern: Ergebnisse aus dem Kinder- und Jugendgesundheitssurvey (KiGGS).

AIM OF THE STUDY: In Germany, differences in health risks, morbidity and health care between children whose parents are insured either in the statutory or in the private health insurance (in German: GKV or PKV respectively) have rarely been studied. Recent studies have shown that adults who are insured in the GKV tend to be less healthy and tend to seek primary health care more frequently than those who are insured in the PKV. The study presented here focuses on the hypothesis that similar inequalities also exist between their children. METHODS: The analyses are based on data from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS), i.e., a large and representative study (n=17,641; response rate: 66.6%) conducted 2003/2006. 3 groups of outcome variables are distinguished: health risks (e.g., smoking, breast-feeding), morbidity (e.g., self-rated health, psychological well-being) and health care (e.g., utilization of primary care physicians and of preventive services). First, bivariate associations between health insurance (GKV vs. PKV) and outcomes were analysed by chi-square tests. Then, the significant associations were tested further in logistic regression models including other variables such as age, sex, national origin and socioeconomic status (SES). We also included analyses stratified by sex and SES. RESULTS: The bivariate analyses show that there are many significant differences between GKV- and PKV-insured children in terms of health risks, morbidity and health care. After controlling for the other variables in the logistic regression, most of these associations become statistically insignificant. Some remain significant, though, for example: Reduced breast-feeding is more common in the GKV group (OR=1.17; 95% CI 1.03 - 1.34), smoking is more prevalent in this group as well (OR=1.41; 95% CI 1.04 - 1.91), and GKV-insured children seek primary health care more frequently than PKV-insured (OR=1.27; 95% CI 1.05 - 1.54). CONCLUSION: Health risks are usually greater among GKV-insured children as compared with PKV-insured. Concerning morbidity, these differences can mainly be explained by differences in national origin and SES. Efforts aimed at reducing these health differences should therefore focus on risks associated with migration and low SES. In addition, differences concerning risk factors such as smoking could not be explained by differences in national origin and SES. Thus, there seems to be a general need for more preventive measures in the GKV (i.e., independent of national origin and SES).

[Relevance of 'subjective social status' for health risks and health status - results from the KORA-F4-study]. / Einfluss des subjektiven Sozialstatus auf gesundheitliche Risiken und Gesundheitszustand - Ergebnisse der KORA-F4-Studie.

OBJECTIVES: In public health research, social status is usually assessed by objective indicators such as educational level and income. Recent studies have shown the importance of including 'subjective social status (SSS)'. The aim of this study is to analyse the influence of SSS on health for the first time in Germany, and to find out if there is an effect over and above the objective indicators of social status. METHODS: The KORA F4 study took place in 2006-2008 in the region of Augsburg, Southern Germany, with a study population of 3 080 men and women aged 32-81 years. SSS was assessed by a single question with 6 possible responses. For the analyses, 3 SSS categories were differentiated: low, middle and high. The following dependent variables were included: self-rated health (SRH), hypertension (uncontrolled), diabetes, metabolic syndrome, hay fever, no participation in medical cancer prevention, obesity (assessed by body mass index and waist-hip-ratio), smoking, physical inactivity. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the influence of SSS (e. g. adjusted for educational level and income). RESULTS: About 25% of the participants group themselves into the lowest SSS-category. Without adjustment for educational level and income, SSS is negatively associated with SRH, hypertension, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, obesity, no participation in medical cancer prevention, smoking and physical inactivity; as expected the association with hay fever is positive. After adjustment for educational level and income, not all of these associations remain significant. Some of the adjusted odds ratios (OR) for SSS differ considerably when stratified by gender, for example concerning the variable 'physical inactivity': The comparison of 'SSS low' vs. 'SSS high' shows for men OR 2.35 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.57-3.50) and for women OR 3.58 (95% CI 2.34-5.47). CONCLUSION: The results from this study strongly suggest that SSS is an important indicator of social status (to date largely disregarded in public health research). Thus, SSS should be applied in addition to other indicators of social status such as educational level and income. The associations with SSS depend on the health indicator studied. Also, sometimes there are large differences when stratified by gender. Further research is needed to fully understand the determinants of SSS and its impact on health.

[Impact of small-area context on health: proposing a conceptual model]. / Die Bedeutung des kleinräumigen Kontexts für Gesundheit: Entwurf eines Erklärungsmodells.

BACKGROUND: Recent empirical studies stress the impact of features related to the small-area context on individual health. However, so far there exists no standard explanatory model that integrates the different kinds of such features and that conceptualises their relation to individual characteristics of social inequality. METHODS: A review of theoretical publications on the relationship between social position and health as well as existing conceptual models for the impact of features related to the small-area context on health was undertaken. RESULTS: In the present article we propose a conceptual model for the health impact of the small-area context. This model conceptualises the location of residence as one dimension of social inequality that affects health through the resources as well as stressors which are inherent in the small-area context. CONCLUSION: The proposed conceptual model offers an orientation for future empirical studies and can serve as a basis for further discussions concerning the health relevance of the small-area context.

Blood glucose testing and primary prevention of Type 2 diabetes-evaluation of the effect of evidence-based patient information: a randomized controlled trial.

AIMS: To compare the effect of our newly developed online evidence-based patient information vs. standard patient information about sub-threshold elevated blood glucose levels and primary prevention of diabetes on informed patient decision making. METHODS: We invited visitors to the cooperating health insurance company, Techniker Krankenkasse, and the German Diabetes Center websites to take part in a web-based randomized controlled trial. The population after randomization comprised 1120 individuals aged between 40 and 70 years without known diabetes, of whom 558 individuals were randomly assigned to the intervention group receiving evidence-based patient information, and 562 individuals were randomly assigned to the control group receiving standard information from the Internet. The primary endpoint was acquired knowledge of elevated blood glucose level issues and the secondary outcomes were attitude to metabolic testing, intention to undergo metabolic testing, decisional conflict and satisfaction with the information. RESULTS: Overall, knowledge of elevated glucose level issues and the intention to undergo metabolic testing were high in both groups. Participants who had received evidence-based patient information, however, had significantly higher knowledge scores. The secondary outcomes in the evidence-based patient information subgroup that completed the 2-week follow-up period yielded significantly lower intention to undergo metabolic testing, significantly more critical attitude towards metabolic testing and significantly higher decisional conflict than the control subgroup (n=466). Satisfaction with the information was not significantly different between both groups. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence-based patient information significantly increased knowledge about elevated glucose levels, but also increased decisional conflict and critical attitude to screening and treatment options. The intention to undergo metabolic screening decreased. Future studies are warranted to assess uptake of metabolic testing and satisfaction with this decision in a broader population of patients with unknown diabetes.

[Regional concentration of social disadvantage and of risks for lung cancer and colon cancer: systematic review and recommendations for research]. / Regionale Konzentration von sozialer Benachteiligung und von Risiken für Lungen- und Darmkrebs: Systematischer Review und Ableitung von Empfehlungen.

OBJECTIVES: Individual health status is influenced by individual social characteristics (age, gender, income usw.) and by the social characteristics of the regional environment in which the person lives. This is true also for lung cancer and colon cancer, two of the most common cancer sites in Germany. No systematic review about the social and regional distribution of lung cancer and colon cancer has been published in German-speaking countries yet. However, it could allow us to deepen the discussion regarding explanations of cancer risks and potential interventions. METHODS: Lung cancer and colon cancer have been selected because they are the two most common gender-independent cancer sites in Germany. A systematic literature search has been conducted via the Medline database using PubMed. 2 groups of regional differences have been distinguished, first by socio-economic characteristics (e. g., average household income) and second by urban vs. rural characteristics. The publications have then been analysed in a systematic way. RESULTS: 17 publications could be found, just 2 of them are from a German-speaking country (one each from Germany and Switzerland). The results concerning incidence and mortality can be summarised in the following way: The risks for lung cancer increase with decreasing socio-economic status of the region, but no clear association could be found for colon cancer. Some studies include information on urban-rural differences. They show that the risks for lung cancer are higher in urban as compared to rural areas; for colon cancer, again, no clear associations could be found. CONCLUSION: The review shows that some studies have already looked at social and regional differences in lung cancer and colon cancer, and that these associations have hardly been discussed in German-speaking countries as yet. We still do not know why lung cancer risks are especially high in low status regions, even if individual smoking is accounted for. The answer could probably be provided by risks such as air pollution. Therefore, a balanced strategy for reducing health inequalities should not just focus on improving individual health behaviour, but also on reducing the regional risks factors.

[Regional deprivation and mortality in Bavaria. Development of a community-based index of multiple deprivation]. / Regionale Deprivation und Mortalität in Bayern. Entwicklung eines 'Index Multipler Deprivation' auf Gemeindeebene.

INTRODUCTION: Deprivation indices are valuable instruments for the analysis of regional effects on health. They may also be used as a surrogate when individual socioeconomic data are not available. These regional deprivation indices are integral parts of the public health discussion in the United Kingdom. In Germany, however, the discussion on this topic has just begun. Our aim was to develop a small-area based, multidimensional Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) for Germany, based on an established British method. METHODS: We chose the German state of Bavaria with its n=2 056 communities as a model region. We used official sociodemographic, socioeconomic and environmental data and created a Bavarian Index of Multiple Deprivation (BIMD). In order to test the applicability of the BIMD in epidemiological analyses we then performed a correlation analysis (Spearman's correlation coefficient) as well as a Poisson regression using data on premature mortality (< 65 years) and on total mortality (all age groups). RESULTS: The correlation analysis showed a positive and significant association between regional deprivation and mortality. The Poisson regression showed a clear gradient, i. e., we found a stepwise increase of mortality risk with increasing regional deprivation. Compared with communities in the lowest deprivation quintile, communities in the highest deprivation quintile showed a clearly higher mortality risk, both for premature mortality [RR 1.49 (95% CI: 1.42 - 1.57)] and for total mortality [RR 1.21 (95% CI: 1.18 - 1.25)]. DISCUSSION: Using this new index, we could demonstrate for communities in Bavaria that higher regional deprivation is associated with higher mortality. This Index of Multiple Deprivation is a new and potentially useful tool for epidemiological and public health related studies in Germany.

[Multimorbidity and successful aging: the population-based KORA-Age study]. / Multimorbidität und erfolgreiches Altern: Ein Blick auf die Bevölkerung im Rahmen der KORA-Age-Studie.

BACKGROUND: The objective of the KORA-Age research consortium is to assess the determinants and consequences of multimorbidity in the elderly and to look into reasons for successful aging in the general public. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In the KORA-Age cohort study 9,197 persons were included who where born in the year 1943 or before and participants of previous KORA cohort studies conducted between 1984 and 2001 (KORA: Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg). The randomized intervention study KORINNA (Coronary infarct follow-up treatment in the elderly) tested a nurse-based case management program with 338 patients with myocardial infarct and included an evaluation in health economics. RESULTS: A total of 2,734 deaths were registered, 4,565 participants submitted a postal health status questionnaire and 4,127 participants were interviewed by telephone (response 76.2% and 68.9% respectively). A gender and age-stratified random sample of the cohort consisting of 1,079 persons took part in a physical examination (response 53.8%). CONCLUSION: The KORA-Age consortium was able to collect data in a large population-based sample and is contributing to the understanding of multimorbidity and successful aging.