Academic climate and psychopathological symptomatology in Spanish medical students.

INTRODUCTION: Medical Education studies suggest that medical students experience depression, anxiety and psychopathological symptomatology in a proportion higher than in the rest of the population. In the present study, we aimed to conduct a nationwide analysis to describe student's perceptions of Educational Climate in Spanish medical schools, and its relationship with psychopathological symptomatology. METHODS: The study was carried out in 2022 in all 44 medical schools in Spain, and analyses the academic climate, and psychopathological symptomatology among medical students (n = 4374). To measure these variables, we used the Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure (DREEM) for academic climate, and the SA-45 (Symptom Assessment-45 Questionnaire was used to assess psychopathological symptomatology. RESULTS: The mean DREEM global score was low, 95.8 (SD 22.6). Worse perception of the academic climate has been found in females (t -2.21, p 0.027), in students of the clinical academic years (t 16.9, p < 0.001), and public medical schools ( t 15.6, p < 0.001). The SA45 general index score was high (p90) in 25.6% of participants. In respect of gender, female students presented higher levels of SA45 general index score, depression, interpersonal sensitivity, somatization, anxiety, obsession-compulsion, and phobic anxiety symptoms. Higher DREEM global and subscale scores corresponded to a higher SA-45 global index score and higher SA-45 subscale scores. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests a correlation between a poor perception of academic climate, increased depression, anxiety, and other psychopathological symptoms, with a pattern that varies between different faculties. The perception of academic climate varied between medical schools, as did the psychopathological symptoms scores. Our finding suggests the prevalence of these variables in medical students is, at least in part, attributable to factors directly related to the learning atmosphere.

Prevalencia de dislipemia aterogénica, factores relacionados y grado de control lipídico en la población general de Galicia. Estudio GALIPEMIAS / Prevalence of atherogenic dyslipidemia, related factors and level of lipid control in the general population of Galicia. GALIPEMIAS study

Objetivos: GALIPEMIAS es un estudio diseñado para establecer la prevalencia de las dislipemias familiares en la población general de Galicia. El objetivo del presente estudio fue determinar la prevalencia de dislipemia aterogénica (DA), su relación con otros factores de riesgo cardiovascular (RCV) y el grado de control lipídico. Métodos: Estudio transversal realizado en la población general mayor de 18 años de edad residente en Galicia, y con tarjeta sanitaria del Servicio Gallego de Salud (N=1.000). Selección de la muestra mediante muestreo aleatorizado por conglomerados. Se analizó la prevalencia de DA ajustada por edad y sexo, y las variables relacionadas. Resultados: La prevalencia de DA ajustada por edad y sexo fue de un 6,6% (IC 95%: 5,0-8,3). La hipertensión arterial, la glucemia basal alterada, la diabetes mellitus tipo 2 y la enfermedad cardiovascular aterosclerótica fueron más frecuentes en individuos con DA que en el resto de la población. El 47,5% de los sujetos con DA presentaba un RCV alto o muy alto. Recibían fármacos hipolipemiantes el 38,9% (30,5% estatinas) de los participantes con DA (46,1% de los de alto y el 71,4% de los de muy alto RCV). El 25,4% de los sujetos con DA presentaban niveles de cLDL en objetivo, siendo todos ellos de bajo o moderado RCV. Conclusiones: La prevalencia de DA en la población general adulta de Galicia no es despreciable, se relacionó con varios factores de RCV y la enfermedad cardiovascular aterosclerótica. A pesar de ello, estuvo infradiagnosticada e infratratada.(AU)

Objectives: GALIPEMIAS is a study designed to establish the prevalence of familial dyslipidemia in the general population of Galicia. The objective of the present study was to assess the prevalence of atherogenic dyslipidemia (AD), its relationship with other cardiovascular risk (CVR) factors, and the degree of lipid control. Methods: Cross-sectional study carried out in the general population over 18 years of age residing in Galicia and with a health card from the Galician Health Service (N=1,000). Selection of the sample by means of random sampling by conglomerates. The AD prevalence adjusted for age and sex and the related variables were analyzed. Results: The prevalence of AD adjusted for age and sex was 6.6% (95% CI: 5.0-8.3%). Arterial hypertension, altered basal glycemia, type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease were more frequent in subjects with AD than in the rest of the population. 47.5% of the subjects with AD had a high or very high CVR. Lipid-lowering drugs were received by 38.9% (30.5% statins) of the participants with AD (46.1% of those with high and 71.4% of those with very high CVR). 25.4% of the subjects with AD had target LDL-c levels, all of them with low or moderate CVR. Conclusions: The prevalence of AD in the general adult population of Galicia is not negligible, and it was related to several CVR factors and cardiovascular disease. Despite this, this lipid alteration was underdiagnosed and undertreated.(AU)

Colesterol remanente, riesgo vascular y prevención de la arteriosclerosis / Remnant cholesterol, vascular risk, and prevention of atherosclerosis

En los pacientes que han alcanzado un control óptimo del c-LDL persiste un riesgo residual de enfermedad cardiovascular aterotrombótica (ECVA) relacionado con alteraciones del metabolismo lipídico, entre las que las alteraciones de las lipoproteínas ricas en triglicéridos y del colesterol que contienen, denominado colesterol remanente, juegan un papel principal. El colesterol remanente tiene una relación con el riesgo residual de ECVA que es independiente del c-LDL y ha sido demostrada en los estudios epidemiológicos y de aleatorización mendeliana, y en los análisis de los ensayos clínicos con fármacos hipolipidemiantes. Las partículas remanentes de las lipoproteínas ricas en triglicéridos son altamente aterogénicas, por su capacidad de entrar y ser retenidas en la pared arterial, su alto contenido en colesterol y su capacidad de generar células espumosas y una respuesta inflamatoria. La valoración del colesterol remanente puede aportar información sobre el riesgo residual de ECVA más allá de la información aportada por el c-LDL, el c-no HDL y la apoB, en particular en los individuos con hipertrigliceridemia, diabetes tipo 2 o síndrome metabólico. En el estudio REDUCE-IT se demostró que el icosapento de etilo tiene un efecto preventivo frente a la ECVA en los pacientes de muy alto riesgo cardiovascular con hipertrigliceridemia tratados con estatinas y con un c-LDL en objetivos. Los nuevos fármacos hipolipidemiantes contribuirán a definir la eficacia y los criterios en el tratamiento del exceso de colesterol remanente y de la hipertrigliceridemia en la prevención de la ECVA.(AU)

In patients who have achieved optimal LDL-C control, there remains a residual risk of atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease (ACVD) related to alterations in lipid metabolism, where alterations in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and the cholesterol they contain, called remnant cholesterol, play a major role. Remnant cholesterol has an association with residual risk of ACVD that is independent of LDL-C and has been demonstrated in epidemiological and Mendelian randomisation studies, and in analyses of clinical trials of lipid-lowering drugs. Remnant triglyceride-rich lipoproteins particles are highly atherogenic, due to their ability to enter and be retained in the arterial wall, their high cholesterol content, and their ability to generate “foam cells” and an inflammatory response. Assessment of remnant cholesterol may provide information on residual risk of ACVD beyond the information provided by LDL-C, Non-HDL-C, and apoB, particularly in individuals with hypertriglyceridaemia, type 2 diabetes, or metabolic syndrome. In the REDUCE-IT study, icosapent ethyl was shown to have a preventive effect against ACVD in very high cardiovascular risk patients with hypertriglyceridaemia treated with statins and target LDL-C. New lipid-lowering drugs will help to define efficacy and criteria in the treatment of excess remnant cholesterol and hypertriglyceridaemia in the prevention of ACVD.(AU)

Atherogenic dyslipidaemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus: The PREDISAT study.

Extremely variable prevalence rates of atherogenic dyslipidaemia (AD) in type 2 diabetes (T2DM) subjects have been reported. The primary aim was to assess AD prevalence in Spanish T2DM subjects. Secondary objectives were to evaluate the differential clinical characteristics between T2DM subjects with and without AD, to describe lipid profile evolution and use of lipid-lowering treatment in clinical practice by the Spanish Lipid Units. Data was obtained from the National Registry of Dyslipidaemias of the Spanish Atherosclerosis Society, from a multicentric sub-study focused on AD prevalence in T2DM subjects (PREDISAT study). The inclusion criteria were subjects diagnosed of T2DM with age ≥18 years old. A total of 385 T2DM subjects with a mean age of 61 years and 246 (64%) men were included. The mean follow-up was 22 ± 7.4 months. At baseline, 41.3% of the T2DM subjects presented AD, this percentage decreasing to 34.8% with therapeutic intervention. AD prevalence varied in different age groups and appeared to be more prevalent in younger T2DM subjects. Those with AD had a more atherogenic lipid profile at baseline, with higher total cholesterol, triglyceride and non-(high-density lipoprotein) HDL cholesterol levels at baseline, together with lower HDL cholesterol concentrations, without achieving lipid subfraction goals during follow-up. Although almost 90% of the AD subjects were under lipid-lowering treatment, most were receiving only one drug, being statins the most used treatmentA high AD prevalence in T2DM subjects was observed, being age a determinant factor, with a modest decline during follow-up. Although almost 90% of the AD subjects were under lipid-lowering drugs, most were only receiving monotherapy with statins.

Remnant cholesterol, vascular risk, and prevention of atherosclerosis. / Colesterol remanente, riesgo vascular y prevención de la arteriosclerosis.

In patients who have achieved optimal LDL-C control, there remains a residual risk of atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease (ACVD) related to alterations in lipid metabolism, where alterations in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and the cholesterol they contain, called remnant cholesterol, play a major role. Remnant cholesterol has an association with residual risk of ACVD that is independent of LDL-C and has been demonstrated in epidemiological and Mendelian randomisation studies, and in analyses of clinical trials of lipid-lowering drugs. Remnant triglyceride-rich lipoproteins particles are highly atherogenic, due to their ability to enter and be retained in the arterial wall, their high cholesterol content, and their ability to generate "foam cells" and an inflammatory response. Assessment of remnant cholesterol may provide information on residual risk of ACVD beyond the information provided by LDL-C, Non-HDL-C, and apoB, particularly in individuals with hypertriglyceridaemia, type 2 diabetes, or metabolic syndrome. In the REDUCE-IT study, icosapent ethyl was shown to have a preventive effect against ACVD in very high cardiovascular risk patients with hypertriglyceridaemia treated with statins and target LDL-C. New lipid-lowering drugs will help to define efficacy and criteria in the treatment of excess remnant cholesterol and hypertriglyceridaemia in the prevention of ACVD.

Prevalence of atherogenic dyslipidemia, related factors and level of lipid control in the general population of Galicia. GALIPEMIAS study. / Prevalencia de dislipemia aterogénica, factores relacionados y grado de control lipídico en la población general de Galicia. Estudio GALIPEMIAS.

OBJECTIVES: GALIPEMIAS is a study designed to establish the prevalence of familial dyslipidemia in the general population of Galicia. The objective of the present study was to assess the prevalence of atherogenic dyslipidemia (AD), its relationship with other cardiovascular risk (CVR) factors, and the degree of lipid control. METHODS: Cross-sectional study carried out in the general population over 18 years of age residing in Galicia and with a health card from the Galician Health Service (N=1,000). Selection of the sample by means of random sampling by conglomerates. The AD prevalence adjusted for age and sex and the related variables were analyzed. RESULTS: The prevalence of AD adjusted for age and sex was 6.6% (95% CI: 5.0-8.3%). Arterial hypertension, altered basal glycemia, type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease were more frequent in subjects with AD than in the rest of the population. 47.5% of the subjects with AD had a high or very high CVR. Lipid-lowering drugs were received by 38.9% (30.5% statins) of the participants with AD (46.1% of those with high and 71.4% of those with very high CVR). 25.4% of the subjects with AD had target LDL-c levels, all of them with low or moderate CVR. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of AD in the general adult population of Galicia is not negligible, and it was related to several CVR factors and cardiovascular disease. Despite this, this lipid alteration was underdiagnosed and undertreated.

Renin-angiotensin system: Basic and clinical aspects-A general perspective.

The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is one of the most complex hormonal regulatory systems, involving several organs that interact to regulate multiple body functions. The study of this system initially focused on investigating its role in the regulation of both cardiovascular function and related pathologies. From this approach, pharmacological strategies were developed for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. However, new findings in recent decades have suggested that the RAS is much more complex and comprises two subsystems, the classic RAS and an alternative RAS, with antagonistic effects that are usually in equilibrium. The classic system is involved in pathologies where inflammatory, hypertrophic and fibrotic phenomena are common and is related to the development of chronic diseases that affect various body systems. This understanding has been reinforced by the evidence that local renin-angiotensin systems exist in many tissue types and by the role of the RAS in the spread and severity of COVID-19 infection, where it was discovered that viral entry into cells of the respiratory system is accomplished through binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, which is present in the alveolar epithelium and is overexpressed in patients with chronic cardiometabolic diseases. In this narrative review, preclinical and clinical aspects of the RAS are presented and topics for future research are discussed some aspects are raised that should be clarified in the future and that call for further investigation of this system.

Renin-angiotensin system: Basic and clinical aspects-A general perspective.

The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is one of the most complex hormonal regulatory systems, involving several organs that interact to regulate multiple body functions. The study of this system initially focused on investigating its role in the regulation of both cardiovascular function and related pathologies. From this approach, pharmacological strategies were developed for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. However, new findings in recent decades have suggested that the RAS is much more complex and comprises two subsystems, the classic RAS and an alternative RAS, with antagonistic effects that are usually in equilibrium. The classic system is involved in pathologies where inflammatory, hypertrophic and fibrotic phenomena are common and is related to the development of chronic diseases that affect various body systems. This understanding has been reinforced by the evidence that local renin-angiotensin systems exist in many tissue types and by the role of the RAS in the spread and severity of COVID-19 infection, where it was discovered that viral entry into cells of the respiratory system is accomplished through binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, which is present in the alveolar epithelium and is overexpressed in patients with chronic cardiometabolic diseases. In this narrative review, preclinical and clinical aspects of the RAS are presented and topics for future research are discussed some aspects are raised that should be clarified in the future and that call for further investigation of this system.

El sistema renina angiotensina es uno de los sistemas de regulación hormonal más complejos, pues participan varios órganos qué interactúan entre sí para regular múltiples funciones corporales. En un inicio el estudio de este sistema se enfocó en investigar su papel en la regulación, tanto de la función cardiovascular como de las enfermedades relacionadas. A partir de este enfoque se desarrollaron estrategias farmacológicas para el tratamiento de enfermedades cardiovasculares. Sin embargo, en las últimas décadas y con nuevos hallazgos se ha planteado que el sistema renina angiotensina es un sistema mucho más complejo constituido por 2 subsistemas, uno clásico y otro alternativo que tienen efectos antagónicos, normalmente en equilibrio. El predominio del sistema clásico está involucrado en enfermedades donde los fenómenos inflamatorios, hipertróficos y fibróticos son comunes y se relacionan con el desarrollo de enfermedades crónicas que afectan diversos sistemas. Esto se ha reforzado por la evidencia de que existen sistemas renina angiotensina locales en muchos tejidos, y por el papel del sistema renina angiotensina en la propagación y severidad de la infección por la COVID-19, en donde se descubrió que el ingreso del virus en el sistema respiratorio se realiza a través de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina 2, presente en el epitelio alveolar y que se sobreexpresa en pacientes con enfermedades cardiometabólicas crónicas. En la presente revisión narrativa se presentan aspectos preclínicos y clínicos de ese sistema y se plantean algunos aspectos que se deben aclarar en el futuro y que demandarán más investigación de este sistema.

Liquid Biopsy Biomarkers for Immunotherapy in Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma: Lessons Learned and the Road Ahead.

Over the recent years, advances in the development of anti-cancer treatments, particularly the implementation of ICIs (immune checkpoint inhibitors), have resulted in increased survival rates in NSCLC (non-small cell lung cancer) patients. However, a significant proportion of patients does not seem respond to immunotherapy, and some individuals even develop secondary resistance to treatment. Therefore, it is imperative to correctly identify the patients that will benefit from ICI therapy in order to tailor therapeutic options in an individualised setting, ultimately benefitting both the patient and the health system. Many different biomarkers have been explored to correctly stratify patients and predict response to immunotherapy, but liquid biopsy approaches have recently arisen as an interesting opportunity to predict and monitor treatment response due to their logistic accessibility. This review summarises the current data and efforts in the field of ICI response biomarkers in NSCLC patients and highlights advantages and limitations as we discuss the road to clinical implementation.

Familial combined hyperlipidaemia/polygenic mixed hyperlipidaemia. / Hiperlipemia familiar combinada/hiperlipemia mixta poligénica.

Familial combined hyperlipidaemia (FCH) is the most prevalent form of familial hyperlipidaemia with a multigenic origin and a complex pattern of inheritance. In this respect, FCH is an oligogenic primary lipid disorder due to interaction of genetic variants and mutations with environmental factors. Patients with FCH are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease and often have other associated metabolic conditions. Despite its relevance in cardiovascular prevention, FCH is frequently underdiagnosed and very often undertreated. In this review, emphasis is placed on the most recent advances in FCH, in order to increase its awareness and ultimately contribute to improving its clinical control.

Declaración fundacional de principios del Foro Iberoamericano de Educación Médica / Statement on Foundation Principles of the Ibero-American Medical Education Forum

No disponible

Prácticas clínicas seguras durante la pandemia por COVID-19 / Safe clinical practices during the COVID-19 pandemic

No disponible

Triglicéridos, colesterol HDL y dislipidemia aterogénica en la guía europea para el control de las dislipidemias 2019 / Triglycerides, HDL cholesterol and atherogenic dyslipidaemia in the 2019 European guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias

En general, las guías de práctica clínica tanto europeas con americanas han abordado el control de la dislipidemia aterogénica de forma poco convincente e incluso superficial, en gran medida por las limitaciones terapéuticas disponibles. En consecuencia, esta dislipidemia está infradiagnosticada, infratratada e infracontrolada. Dada la reciente aparición de la guía 2019 de la European Atherosclerosis Society y de la European Society of Cardiology sobre el control de las dislipidemias, parece oportuno examinar su posicionamiento con respecto a la dislipidemia aterogénica y/o sus principales componentes, el aumento en las lipoproteínas ricas en triglicéridos y la disminución del colesterol de las lipoproteínas de alta densidad

In general, both European and American clinical guidelines have addressed the management of atherogenic dyslipidaemia in an unconvincing and even superficial way, largely because of the available therapeutic limitations. Consequently, this type of dyslipidaemia is underdiagnosed, under-treated, and under-controlled. Given the recent presentation of the 2019 guidelines of the European Atherosclerosis Society and the European Society of Cardiology on the management of dyslipidaemias, it seems appropriate to examine its position with respect to atherogenic dyslipidaemia and/or its main components, the increase in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, and the decrease of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol

El médico frente a la COVID-19: lecciones de una pandemia / The doctor and COVID-19: lessons from a pandemic

Aparte de su enorme impacto sanitario y económico, la pandemia de COVID-19 ha modificado la forma de practicar la medicina y la educación médica. Es probable que dicho efecto acelere la transformación que están experimentando ambas actividades. El presente trabajo, escrito en el momento más álgido de la crisis, plantea algunas reflexiones sobre cuatro temas: 1) la publicación de noticias falsas y sensacionalistas; 2) los riesgos de la toma de decisiones médicas no basadas en evidencias; 3) las implicaciones bioéticas cuando no hay suficientes recursos para todos, y 4) los posibles efectos de la crisis en la enseñanza de la medicina. Esta crisis debería servir a médicos, docentes y estudiantes de medicina para extraer conclusiones y estar mejor preparados para el futuro. En primer lugar, es esencial mantener un pensamiento crítico que proteja contra la «infodemia». Además, no deberían rebajarse, sino mantener íntegros, los estándares científicos y éticos aprendidos en la facultad. Por último, debe recordarse que, en una pandemia tan devastadora como la actual, aparte de la medicina científica, la que se practica con el cerebro, debe ejercerse también esa otra medicina que se practica con el corazón

Apart from its enormous health and economic impact, the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way of practicing medicine and medical education. It is likely that this effect may accelerate the transformation that both activities are experiencing. The present article, written at the peak of the crisis, sets out some thoughts on four topics: 1) the publication of false and sensationalist news; 2) the risks of taking medical decisions not based on the evidence; 3) the bioethical implications when there are sufficient resources available for everybody and; 4) the possible effects of the crisis on the teaching of medicine. This crisis should enable doctors, teachers and, students of medicine to draw conclusions and be better prepared for the future. Firstly, it is essential to maintain critical thinking that may protect against the ‘infodemic’. Furthermore, the scientific and ethical standards learned in the faculty, should not be forgotten. Lastly, it should be remembered that, in a devastating pandemic like the current one, apart from scientific medicine, which is practised with the brain, the other medicine that is practiced with the heart must also be practiced

Dislipidemia aterogénica 2019. Documento de consenso del Grupo de Dislipidemia Aterogénica de la Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis / Atherogenic Dyslipidaemia 2019. Consensus document of the Atherogenic Dyslipidaemia Group of the Spanish Arteriosclerosis Society

No disponible

Triglycerides, HDL cholesterol and atherogenic dyslipidaemia in the 2019 European guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias. / Triglicéridos, colesterol HDL y dislipidemia aterogénica en la guía europea para el control de las dislipidemias 2019.

In general, both European and American clinical guidelines have addressed the management of atherogenic dyslipidaemia in an unconvincing and even superficial way, largely because of the available therapeutic limitations. Consequently, this type of dyslipidaemia is underdiagnosed, under-treated, and under-controlled. Given the recent presentation of the 2019 guidelines of the European Atherosclerosis Society and the European Society of Cardiology on the management of dyslipidaemias, it seems appropriate to examine its position with respect to atherogenic dyslipidaemia and/or its main components, the increase in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, and the decrease of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

Randomized clinical trial analyzing maintenance of peripheral venous catheters in an internal medicine unit: Heparin vs. saline.

BACKGROUND: Peripheral venous catheters (PVCs) require adequate maintenance based on heparin or saline locks in order to prevent complications. Heparin has proven effective in central venous catheters, although its use in PVCs remains controversial. Our hypothesis was that saline locks are as effective as heparin locks in preventing problems with PVCs. The objective of the present study was to compare phlebitis and catheter tip colonization rates between PVCs locked with saline and those locked with heparin in patients admitted to an internal medicine department (IMD). METHODS: We performed a 19-month prospective, controlled, open-label, randomized clinical study of patients with at least 1 PVC admitted to the IMD of our hospital. The patients were randomized to receive saline solution (PosiFlush®, group A) or heparin (Fibrilin®, group B) for daily maintenance of the PVC. Clinical and microbiological data were monitored to investigate the frequency of phlebitis, catheter tip colonization, and catheter-related bloodstream infection (C-RBSI), as well as crude mortality, days of hospital stay, and days of antimicrobial treatment. RESULTS: We assessed 339 PVCs (241 patients), of which 192 (56.6%) were locked with saline (group A) and 147 (43.4%) with heparin (group B). The main demographic characteristics of the patients were distributed equally between the 2 study groups. The median (IQR) catheter days was 5 (3-8) for both groups (p = 0.64). The frequency of phlebitis was 17.7% for group A and 13.3% for group B (p = 0.30). The frequency of colonization of PVC tips was 14.6% and 12.2% in groups A and B, respectively (p = 0.63). Only 2 episodes of C-RBSI were detected (1 patient in group A). Saline lock was not an independent factor for phlebitis or catheter colonization. CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed no statistically significant differences in the frequency of phlebitis and catheter tip colonization between PVCs locked with saline and PVCs locked with heparin. We suggest that PVC can be maintained with saline solution, as it is safer and cheaper than heparin.

Overall Mortality and LDL Cholesterol Reduction in Secondary Prevention Trials of Cardiovascular Disease.

Pooled data from randomized clinical trials on lipid-lowering therapy have provided valuable information and clinical insights. Although cardiovascular disease is a common cause of death, mortality data have rarely been prominent in key lipid trials. The 4S, LIPID and HPS trials were the first to demonstrate a reduction in overall mortality. Lower- versus higher-intensity statin trials and non-statin lipid-lowering trials with ezetimibe and proprotein convertase subtilisin-kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors proved that additional lipid lowering significantly reduces the occurrence of cardiovascular events. However, only the ODYSSEY OUTCOMES trial showed a reduction in all-cause mortality. The aim of the present narrative review was to contrast these results with those of other key lipid trials: those assessing statins compared with placebo, those evaluating intensive- versus moderate-intensity lipid-lowering therapy and, finally, those investigating non-statin lipid-lowering therapies.

El médico frente a la COVID-19: lecciones de una pandemia / The doctor and COVID-19: lessons from a pandemic

Aparte de su enorme impacto sanitario y económico, la pandemia de COVID-19 ha modificado la forma de practicar la medicina y la educación médica. Es probable que dicho efecto acelere la transformación que están experimentando ambas actividades. El presente trabajo, escrito en el momento más álgido de la crisis, plantea algunas reflexiones sobre cuatro temas: 1) la publicación de noticias falsas y sensacionalistas; 2) los riesgos de la toma de decisiones médicas no basadas en evidencias; 3) las implicaciones bioéticas cuando no hay suficientes recursos para todos, y 4) los posibles efectos de la crisis en la enseñanza de la medicina. Esta crisis debería servir a médicos, docentes y estudiantes de medicina para extraer conclusiones y estar mejor preparados para el futuro. En primer lugar, es esencial mantener un pensamiento crítico que proteja contra la «infodemia». Además, no deberían rebajarse, sino mantener íntegros, los estándares científicos y éticos aprendidos en la facultad. Por último, debe recordarse que, en una pandemia tan devastadora como la actual, aparte de la medicina científica, la que se practica con el cerebro, debe ejercerse también esa otra medicina que se practica con el corazón

Apart from its enormous health and economic impact, the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way of practicing medicine and medical education. It is likely that this effect may accelerate the transformation that both activities are experiencing. The present article, written at the peak of the crisis, sets out some thoughts on four topics: 1) the publication of false and sensationalist news; 2) the risks of taking medical decisions not based on the evidence; 3) the bioethical implications when there are sufficient resources available for everybody and; 4) the possible effects of the crisis on the teaching of medicine. This crisis should enable doctors, teachers and, students of medicine to draw conclusions and be better prepared for the future. Firstly, it is essential to maintain critical thinking that may protect against the 'infodemic'. Furthermore, the scientific and ethical standards learned in the faculty, should not be forgotten. Lastly, it should be remembered that, in a devastating pandemic like the current one, apart from scientific medicine, which is practised with the brain, the other medicine that is practiced with the heart must also be practiced