Host phylogeny shapes viral transmission networks in an island ecosystem.

Virus transmission between host species underpins disease emergence. Both host phylogenetic relatedness and aspects of their ecology, such as species interactions and predator-prey relationships, may govern rates and patterns of cross-species virus transmission and hence zoonotic risk. To address the impact of host phylogeny and ecology on virus diversity and evolution, we characterized the virome structure of a relatively isolated island ecological community in Fiordland, New Zealand, that are linked through a food web. We show that phylogenetic barriers that inhibited cross-species virus transmission occurred at the level of host phyla (between the Chordata, Arthropoda and Streptophyta) as well as at lower taxonomic levels. By contrast, host ecology, manifest as predator-prey interactions and diet, had a smaller influence on virome composition, especially at higher taxonomic levels. The virus-host community comprised a 'small world' network, in which hosts with a high diversity of viruses were more likely to acquire new viruses, and generalist viruses that infect multiple hosts were more likely to infect additional species compared to host specialist viruses. Such a highly connected ecological community increases the likelihood of cross-species virus transmission, particularly among closely related species, and suggests that host generalist viruses present the greatest risk of disease emergence.

A new group of species of the genus Megalothorax (Collembola, Neelidae) with Gondwanan distribution, and introducing an open interactive identification key of Megalothorax species.

Megalothorax Willem, 1900 is a genus of Neelidae (Collembola) with worldwide distribution. Three new species are described here: Megalothorax anterolenis sp. nov. (Patagonia, Chile), Megalothorax tasmanterolenis sp. nov. (Tasmania, Australia) and Megalothorax zealanterolenis sp. nov. (the South Island, New Zealand). New descriptive elements are also provided for Megalothorax rubidus. Two of the new species were sequenced (COI, 16S rDNA, 28S rDNA). Within the genus, the three new species form a new group of species characterised by the absence of secondary granulation dorsally on the head and the thorax, a reduced chaetotaxy of the basomedian field of labium, a bifurcate hair on the maxillary outer lobe and an enlarged S-chaeta (Sa2) on Ant. IV. The molecular based phylogeny further supports the sistership of the two sequenced species. The possible Gondwanan origin of the new group is discussed. Elements of discussion are also provided regarding the possible function of the incomplete coverage of secondary granulation. Finally, an open interactive identification key for the Megalothorax species of the world is introduced.

Discharge Rehabilitation Measures Predict Activity Limitations in Patients With Stroke 6 Months After Inpatient Rehabilitation.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to identify rehabilitation measures at discharge from acute inpatient stroke rehabilitation that predict activity limitations at 6 mos postdischarge. DESIGN: This is a retrospective analysis of a prospective, longitudinal, observational cohort study. It was conducted in an acute inpatient rehabilitation unit at an urban, academic medical center. Activity limitations in patients ( N = 141) with stroke of mild-moderate severity were assessed with the activity measure for post-acute care at inpatient stroke rehabilitation discharge and 6-mo follow-up. Rehabilitation measures at discharge were investigated as predictors for activity limitations at 6 mos. RESULTS: Measures of balance (Berg Balance Scale), functional limitations in motor-based activities (functional independence measure-motor subscore), and motor impairment (motricity index), in addition to discharge activities measure for post-acute care scores, strongly predicted activity limitations in basic mobility and daily activities at 6 mos (51% and 41% variance explained, respectively). Functional limitations in cognition (functional independence measure-cognitive subscore) and executive function impairment (Trail Making Test-part B), in addition to the discharge activities measure for post-acute care score, modestly predicted limitations in cognitively based daily activities at 6 mos (12% of variance). CONCLUSIONS: Standardized rehabilitation measures at inpatient stroke rehabilitation discharge can predict future activity limitations, which may improve prediction of outcome post-stroke and aid in postdischarge treatment planning.

Reproduction of Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Under Different Adult Densities and Light Regimes.

The black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) has been recognized as a promising insect species for sustainable management of organic waste and by-products. Indoor breeding of BSF with artificial lighting has been proved successful, but efforts are still needed to optimize BSF reproductive output. Increasing adult density seems an option to exploit space, whereas decreasing artificial lighting duration may reduce unnecessary power consumption. This study aimed at investigating the effects of adult density (10, 25, and 50 pairs per 30 × 30 × 30 cm cage; i.e., 370, 926, and 1,852 pairs/m3), light regime (8:16, 12:12, and 16:8 [L:D] h), and their possible interactions, on some BSF life history traits relevant to reproduction. The results show that the overall BSF reproductive output increased with increasing adult density but was not affected by light regimes per se. With the highest BSF adult density tested, an average of more than 20,000 neonate larvae were produced from a cage within 10 d. At this density, increasing photoperiod increased neonate production, but also decreased the number of neonates per watt used for artificial illumination. The temporal oviposition patterns, mean individual female reproductive output, mating success, egg hatching rate, and insect survival rate were not affected by adult density or light regime as simple effects. However, the interaction between adult density and light regime was significant for the first oviposition peak, mean individual female reproductive output, and insect survival rate. The possible mechanisms behind our results are discussed.

CHANGES IN THE LEVELS OF THEILERIA ORIENTALIS IKEDA TYPE INFECTION IN HAEMAPHYSALIS LONGICORNIS NYMPHS OVER A SIX-MONTH PERIOD.

This study aimed to investigate whether the infection intensity of Theileria orientalis Ikeda type organisms within Haemaphysalis longicornis larvae and nymph stages fluctuated over 6 mo after feeding as larvae on infected calves in the field. Naïve larvae, hatched from eggs, were fed on infected calves for 5 days while contained within cotton socks glued over the calves' ears. Larvae were first sampled immediately post-feeding and then sampled every 3 wk for 23 wk in total, after molting to nymphs. All larvae and nymphs were tested for T. orientalis Ikeda organisms using quantitative PCR. The qPCR results showed that the infection intensity of Haemaphysalis longicornis larvae and nymphs was not constant over the sampling period, and after initially dropping after molting to nymphs, it then rose with fasting to a maximum at 17 and 23 wk post-feeding. The significant rise in T. orientalis Ikeda organisms observed at 23 wk postfeeding may explain why more severe clinical cases of bovine theileriosis in New Zealand are seen in the spring when nymphs are the predominant instar questing.

Honeydew Deposition by the Giant Willow Aphid (Tuberolachnus salignus) Affects Soil Biota and Soil Biochemical Properties.

Infestation of willow plants by the giant willow aphid Tuberolachnus salignus (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is associated with copious deposition of sugar-rich honeydew under the plant canopy. We explored the effect of aphid honeydew on the soil biota and biochemical indicators in a two-year field trial. Soil samples from under aphid-infested and control willow trees, as well as samples from black sooty mould spots under the aphid-infested willows were compared; soil samples before aphid inoculation were used as a baseline. The honeydew deposition had a positive effect on the total soil carbon (C), but not on the total soil nitrogen content or soil pH. Microbial biomass C, basal respiration, number of yeast colony forming units, and the geometric mean of activities for six enzymes were significantly higher in honeydew-affected soils than in the control treatment on both years. The honeydew deposition also increased soil meso-fauna abundance, especially in the black sooty mould spots. The soil biochemical properties, which differed before and after aphid infestation, showed considerable overlap between the first and second year post-infestation. The results highlight the cascading effects of T. salignus on soil biological activity and the importance of using a multitrophic approach to explore similar scenarios.

New species of Microdispidae (Acari: Heterostigmata) from alpine New Zealand.

Four new species of the mite family Microdispidae, Phyllodispus tenuisetus sp. nov., Promicrodispus bisetus sp. nov., Premicrodispus (Premicrodispus) novaezealandicus sp. nov., and Premicrodispus (Premicrodispulus) secundus sp. nov., are described from soil in alpine New Zealand. The genus Promicrodispus and subgenus Premicrodispus (Premicrodispulus) are recorded from New Zealand for the first time.

Mating success of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), under four artificial light sources.

Larvae of the black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) are promising organisms to be used for organic waste bioconversion. Breeding BSF indoors has been suggested as a cost-effective approach for countries with long winters or low sunlight levels through the year. As the BSF mating is visually mediated, artificial illumination conditions are critical to a successful indoor breeding system. In this study, we tested four different types of artificial light sources for their effects on BSF mating success. They included: (1) a halogen lamp; (2) a combination of a white light-emitting diode (LED) lamp and a fluorescent ultra violet lamp; (3) a metal halide lamp, and (4) a specially designed light-emitting diode (BSFLED) lamp, whose design was based on the specific BSF adult visual spectral sensitivity. We determined the spectra of four artificial light sources, compared their spectral composition in relation to the BSF-visible spectrum, and compared their effects on the mating success of two different BSF colonies. BSFLED was the most energy efficient light source in spectral composition and led to the highest mating success in terms of the percentage of inseminated females and fertile clutches. Thus, BSFLED is the most suitable light source tested in our experiment for breeding BSF indoors. The colony effect and possible light flickering effect on BSF mating success were also detected. The implications of these findings are discussed.

New species and a new record of the mite family Scutacaridae (Acari: Heterostigmata) from alpine New Zealand.

Seven new species of the mite family Scutacaridae (Acari: Pygmephoroidea) are described from the alpine zone (1600-1900 m a.s.l.) of the Central Otago region of the South Island of New Zealand: Diversipes laticaudatus sp. nov., Scutacarus isotrichus sp. nov., S. incisus sp. nov., S. spinisetus sp. nov., S. cornutus sp. nov., S. novaezealandicus sp. nov., and S. crassus sp. nov. In addition, Imparipes woodi Mahunka, 1974 is recorded from the New Zealand for the first time and redescribed.

A revision of the Heatherellidae (Parasitiformes: Mesostigmata) with a new genus and two new species from Australasia.

The discovery of a new genus of Heatherellidae in New Zealand has led us to revise this enigmatic family and its constituent genera. Aheatherella n. gen., based on A. mira n. sp. from the North Island of New Zealand, lacks some of the derived character states that link the Australian Heatherella, most notably the lack of sexual dimorphism in the dorsal shields and in the presence of peritremes in adult Aheatherella. Heatherella osleri n. sp. is described from New South Wales, extending the distribution of this genus beyond Queensland. New collection records of H. callimaulos and a key to the genera and species of the family are provided. We propose that the Heatherellidae-previously placed in its own cohort outside the Gamasina-are best considered a superfamily of gamasine mites within the subcohort Epicriiae.

New taxa of the mite family Neopygmephoridae (Acari: Heterostigmata) from alpine New Zealand.

Two new genera and four new species of the mite family Neopygmephoridae (Acari: Pygmephoroidea) are described from the alpine zone (1600-1900 m a.s.l.) of the Central Otago region of the South Island of New Zealand: Protobakerdania Khaustov and Minor gen. nov. with the type species Pygmephorus togatus Willmann, 1942, Neobakerdania Khaustov and Minor gen. nov. with the type species Neobakerdania pilosa Khaustov and Minor sp. nov., and the species Protobakerdania diseta Khaustov and Minor sp. nov., Troxodania minuta Khaustov and Minor sp. nov., and Bakerdania alpina Khaustov and Minor sp. nov. Eight species are moved to Protobakerdania Khaustov and Minor gen. nov. from Bakerdania Sasa, 1961: P. aperta (Rack and Kaliszewski, 1985) comb. nov., P. arvorum (Jacot, 1936) comb. nov., P. arvorum nodulosa (Mahunka, 1969b) comb. nov., P. baloghi (Mahunka, 1969b) comb. nov., P. crenata (Mahunka, 1969b) comb. nov., P. pristinus (Mahunka, 1968) comb. nov., P. randae (Sevastianov and Zahida Al Douri, 1989) comb. nov., and P. togatus (Willmann, 1942) comb. nov.

Bioconversion of Three Organic Wastes by Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae.

This study aimed to determine the suitability of several organic waste substrates to be processed by the larvae of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) (BSFL) in a value-added bioconversion system. Three types of organic waste (brewer's waste, solid phase of pig manure, and semidigested grass) were tested and compared with a standard larval diet, broll (wheat middling). Larval survival and growth, chemical composition of the resulting prepupae, conversion ratios of nutrients and waste dry matter, and waste reduction rate were measured. Larval survival was high in all tested substrates. Compared with the larvae fed pig manure or semidigested grass, those fed standard diet or brewer's waste showed shorter development time, higher weight gain, and higher prepupal crude protein and crude fat content. BSFL also reduce more dry matter in the standard diet or in brewer's waste than in the other two substrates. On the other hand, larvae fed semidigested grass took 70 d to complete development and suffered fat loss. Thus, we suggest that brewer's waste is the most suitable substrate among the selected wastes for being processed by BSFL, whereas semidigested grass is an unsuitable substrate. We found that lignin had a significantly negative effect on larval growth, and emphasized the importance of applying lignin-digesting microorganisms to lignin-rich substrates being converted by BSFL. Moreover, a protein:fat:digestible carbohydrate ratio of 2:1:2 was hypothesized to benefit larval development.

Correction to: Taxonomic resolution and functional traits in the analysis of tropical oribatid mite assemblages.

Due to an unfortunate turn of events, the statistical results for TS1 (F- and p-values) in Table 4 were displayed in reversed order. The correct representation of Table 4 is published here and should be treated as definitive.

Taxonomic resolution and functional traits in the analysis of tropical oribatid mite assemblages.

We analysed species-level datasets representing Oribatida assemblages along a gradient of old-growth primary tropical forests, secondary forests, and plantation forests in Dong Nai Biosphere Reserve, Vietnam. We identified patterns in abundance, species richness and species assemblages of Oribatida, then applied taxonomic sufficiency approach to the datasets. Using three levels of higher-taxon aggregation, we evaluated whether aggregated datasets are useful in identifying ecological patterns, in comparison to species-level data. Species-level data on Oribatida assemblages clearly separated plantation forests from other forest environments; there was no significant separation between primary and secondary forests. Geographical structuring of species-level assemblages was significant, separating sites from two regions of the reserve. There was a significant concordance between multivariate ordination plots produced for species-level and aggregated (families, suborders/superfamilies) datasets, with Oribatida assemblages of plantation forests consistently separated from two other forest types. Mycobatidae (at family level) and Ceratozetoidea (at suborder/superfamily level) were indicators of plantation forests. The coarsest taxonomic resolution dataset with only four aggregated groups produced no separation of Oribatida assemblages by forest type or region. Moderate level of taxonomic aggregation applied to Oribatida community data did not cause great differences in patterns revealed by multivariate analysis, and therefore could be a valid approach to analysing the structure of tropical Oribatida assemblages. The taxonomic level of suborders and Brachypylina superfamilies appears to be the best compromise for ecological information and ease of identification. Two traits-body size and reproductive mode-were recorded for collected Oribatida species. Community-weighted mean trait value, modified Mason's index of functional divergence, and Rao's index of functional diversity were calculated for each trait in each of the sampled Oribatida assemblages. Sexual reproduction was a dominant reproductive mode in soil Oribatida and did not vary across forest types, indicating similar levels of resource limitation for this trait. For body size, lower functional divergence in plantation forests suggests less scope for niche differentiation and higher competition among different body sizes in this forest type. Use of functional traits can enhance and complement the analysis of Oribatida communities, but more data are needed on feeding- and diet-related traits in tropical Oribatida.

Parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Adjusts Reproductive Strategy When Competing for Hosts.

Parasitoid fitness depends on its ability to manipulate reproductive strategies when in competition. This study investigated the parasitism and sex allocation strategies of the parasitic wasp Diaeretiella rapae McIntosh at a range of host (Brevicoryne brassicae L.) and conspecific densities. The results suggest that D. rapae females adjust their progeny production and progeny sex ratio with changing competition. When foraging alone, female D. rapae parasitize larger number of B. brassicae nymphs when the number of available hosts is increased, but the overall proportion of parasitized hosts decreases with increase in host density. The proportion of female offspring also decreases with elevated host density. Increase in the number of female D. rapae foraging together increased total parasitism, but reduced relative contribution of each individual female. The number of female progeny decreased when multiple females competed for the same host. However, foraging experience in the presence of one or more conspecifics increased the parasitism rate and proportion of female progeny. Competing females were more active during oviposition and had shorter lives. The study suggests that both host and foundress (female parasitoid) densities have significant effect on progeny production, sex allocation, and longevity of foraging females.

Three new species of oribatid mites of the family Punctoribatidae (Acari, Oribatida) from alpine bogs of New Zealand.

Three new species of oribatid mites of the family Punctoribatidae (Acari, Oribatida) are described from alpine bogs of the Central Otago region in the South Island of New Zealand. Macrogena hexasetosa sp. nov. is morphologically most similar to M. brevisensilla Ermilov & Minor, 2015, however, it differs from the latter by larger body size, the presence of six pairs of genital setae, notogastral and ano-adanal setae of medium size, setiform rostral setae, narrower tutorial cusps, the absence of antero-ventral teeth on genua I, II and femora II, and by the absence of striae on the subcapitular mentum. Porallozetes badamdorji sp. nov. differs from the type species-P. dispar (Hammer, 1973)-by larger body length, the presence of interlamellar setae, short and clavate bothridial setae, anterior notogastral margin, notogastral setae of medium size, semi-oval dorsophragmata, and by the position of notogastral porose areas A2 posteriorly to A1. Safrobates gerdi sp. nov. differs from the type species-S. miniporus Mahunka, 1989-by larger body size, the presence of setiform rostral setae, and by notogastral setae of medium length. Porallozetes and Safrobates are recorded in New Zealand for the first time. Generic diagnoses for Macrogena, Porallozetes and Safrobates are given.

New Oppiidae (Acari, Oribatida) from New Zealand.

Three new species of oribatid mites of the family Oppiidae (Oribatida, Oppioidea), belonging to the genera/subgenera Tripiloppia Hammer, 1968 and Lanceoppia (Baioppia) Luxton, 1985, are described from Central Otago, South Island, New Zealand. Tripiloppia frigida sp. nov. is morphologically similar to T. dalenii Hammer, 1968, but differs from the latter by the lanceolate bothridial setae, five pairs of genital setae, and trapezoid anterior notogastral protrusion. Tripiloppia alpina sp. nov. is morphologically similar to T. frigida sp. nov., but differs from the latter by the short, diagonal costulae, strong teeth in humeral regions, barbed lamellar setae, and interlamellar setae shorter than rostral setae. Lanceoppia (Baioppia) trapezoides sp. nov. is morphologically similar to L. (B.) moritzi Hammer, 1968, but differs from the latter by the larger body length, presence of notogastral setae c, and long interlamellar setae. The taxonomic status of the genus Autoppia Golosova & Karppinen, 1983 and systematic placement of Autoppia algicola Golosova & Karppinen, 1983 are discussed, resulting in the following taxonomic proposals: Tripiloppia Hammer, 1968 (=Autoppia Golosova & Karppinen, 1983 syn. nov.); Tripiloppia algicola (Golosova & Karppinen, 1983) comb. nov. The identification keys to known species of Tripiloppia and Lanceoppia (Baioppia) are given.

Zealandozetes southensis gen. nov., sp. nov. (Acari, Oribatida, Maudheimiidae) from alpine cushions plant in New Zealand.

A new oribatid mite genus, Zealandozetes gen. nov. (Oribatida, Maudheimiidae), with type species Zealandozetes southensis sp. nov., is proposed and described based on adult and juvenile instars. It inhabits the soil under and around cushion-forming plants in the high-altitude alpine zone of two mountain ranges (the Pisa Range and The Remarkables) in the South Island of New Zealand. It is distinguished from species of Maudheimia by having pteromorphs reduced to pleural carinae, notogastral saccules, small pedotecta I, and both postanal porose area and Ah expressed as complex saccules. Juveniles are similar to those of Maudheimia, except the humeral organ of Z. southensis is cupule-like and gastronotic microsclerites are lacking. We give a revised diagnosis for Maudheimiidae and discuss both supportive and contradictory evidence for inclusion of Zealandozetes. Finally, we discuss endemism of Zealandozetes with reference to the knowledge of New Zealand biogeography and its oribatid fauna.

Fifteen into Three Does Go: Morphology, Genetics and Genitalia Confirm Taxonomic Inflation of New Zealand Beetles (Chrysomelidae: Eucolaspis).

Eucolaspis Sharp 1886 is a New Zealand native leaf beetle genus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Eumolpinae) with poorly described species and a complex taxonomy. Many economically important fruit crops are severely damaged by these beetles. Uncertain species taxonomy of Eucolaspis is leaving any biological research, as well as pest management, tenuous. We used morphometrics, mitochondrial DNA and male genitalia to study phylogenetic and geographic diversity of Eucolaspis in New Zealand. Freshly collected beetles from several locations across their distribution range, as well as identified voucher specimens from major museum collections were examined to test the current classification. We also considered phylogenetic relationships among New Zealand and global Eumolpinae (Coleoptera: Chyrosomelidae). We demonstrate that most of the morphological information used previously to define New Zealand Eucolaspis species is insufficient. At the same time, we show that a combination of morphological and genetic evidence supports the existence of just 3 mainland Eucolaspis lineages (putative species), and not 5 or 15, as previously reported. In addition, there may be another closely related lineage (putative species) on an offshore location (Three Kings Islands, NZ). The cladistic structure among the lineages, conferred through mitochondrial DNA data, was well supported by differences in male genitalia. We found that only a single species (lineage) infests fruit orchards in Hawke's Bay region of New Zealand. Species-host plant associations vary among different regions.

Austrodontella monticola sp. nov., a new species of Collembola from montane New Zealand.

Collembola were collected from soil in the alpine belt (1600-1900 m a.s.l.) of the Southern Alps of New Zealand. A list of species found is provided. Austrodontella monticola sp. nov., the third species of a Odontellidae genus with a southern distribution is described. The other two species in the genus occur in southern Australia and in the Indian Ocean sector of the Subantarctic respectively. Notes on A. trispina (Womersley, 1935), the type species of the genus, are provided.