Multinational prospective study of incidence and risk factors for central-line-associated bloodstream infections in 728 intensive care units of 41 Asian, African, Eastern European, Latin American, and Middle Eastern countries over 24 years.

OBJECTIVE: To identify central-line (CL)-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) incidence and risk factors in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). DESIGN: From July 1, 1998, to February 12, 2022, we conducted a multinational multicenter prospective cohort study using online standardized surveillance system and unified forms. SETTING: The study included 728 ICUs of 286 hospitals in 147 cities in 41 African, Asian, Eastern European, Latin American, and Middle Eastern countries. PATIENTS: In total, 278,241 patients followed during 1,815,043 patient days acquired 3,537 CLABSIs. METHODS: For the CLABSI rate, we used CL days as the denominator and the number of CLABSIs as the numerator. Using multiple logistic regression, outcomes are shown as adjusted odds ratios (aORs). RESULTS: The pooled CLABSI rate was 4.82 CLABSIs per 1,000 CL days, which is significantly higher than that reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Healthcare Safety Network (CDC NHSN). We analyzed 11 variables, and the following variables were independently and significantly associated with CLABSI: length of stay (LOS), risk increasing 3% daily (aOR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.03-1.04; P < .0001), number of CL days, risk increasing 4% per CL day (aOR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.03-1.04; P < .0001), surgical hospitalization (aOR, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.03-1.21; P < .0001), tracheostomy use (aOR, 1.52; 95% CI, 1.23-1.88; P < .0001), hospitalization at a publicly owned facility (aOR, 3.04; 95% CI, 2.31-4.01; P <.0001) or at a teaching hospital (aOR, 2.91; 95% CI, 2.22-3.83; P < .0001), hospitalization in a middle-income country (aOR, 2.41; 95% CI, 2.09-2.77; P < .0001). The ICU type with highest risk was adult oncology (aOR, 4.35; 95% CI, 3.11-6.09; P < .0001), followed by pediatric oncology (aOR, 2.51;95% CI, 1.57-3.99; P < .0001), and pediatric (aOR, 2.34; 95% CI, 1.81-3.01; P < .0001). The CL type with the highest risk was internal-jugular (aOR, 3.01; 95% CI, 2.71-3.33; P < .0001), followed by femoral (aOR, 2.29; 95% CI, 1.96-2.68; P < .0001). Peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) was the CL with the lowest CLABSI risk (aOR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.02-2.18; P = .04). CONCLUSIONS: The following CLABSI risk factors are unlikely to change: country income level, facility ownership, hospitalization type, and ICU type. These findings suggest a focus on reducing LOS, CL days, and tracheostomy; using PICC instead of internal-jugular or femoral CL; and implementing evidence-based CLABSI prevention recommendations.

Incremental costs of hospital-acquired infections in COVID-19 patients in an adult intensive care unit of a tertiary hospital from a low-resource setting.

BACKGROUND: Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are a global public health problem and put patients at risk of complications, including death. HAIs increase treatment costs, but their financial impact on Serbia's healthcare system is unknown. Our goal was to assess incremental costs of HAIs in a tertiary care adult intensive care unit (ICU) that managed COVID-19 patients. METHODS: A retrospective study from March 6th to December 31st, 2020 included patients with microbiologically confirmed COVID-19 (positive rapid antigen test or real-time polymerase chain reaction) treated in the ICU of the Teaching Hospital for Infectious and Tropical Diseases, University Clinical Centre of Serbia. Demographic and HAI-specific data acquired in our ICU were collected, including total and stratified medical costs (services, materials, laboratory testing, medicines, occupancy costs). Median total and stratified costs were compared in relation to HAI acquisition. Linear regression modelling was used to assess incremental costs of HAIs, adjusted for age, biological sex, prior hospitalisation, Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI), and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) on admission. Outcome variables were length of stay (LOS) in days and mortality. RESULTS: During the study period, 299 patients were treated for COVID-19, of which 214 were included. HAIs were diagnosed in 56 (26.2%) patients. Acinetobacter spp. was the main pathogen in respiratory (38, 45.8%) and bloodstream infections (35, 42.2%), the two main HAI types. Median total costs were significantly greater in patients with HAIs (€1650.4 vs. €4203.2, p < 0.001). Longer LOS (10.0 vs. 18.5 days, p < 0.001) and higher ICU mortality (51.3% vs. 89.3%, p < 0.001) were seen if HAIs were acquired. Patients with ≥ 2 HAIs had the highest median total costs compared to those without HAIs or with a single HAI (€1650.4 vs. €3343.4 vs. €7336.9, p < 0.001). Incremental costs in patients with 1 and ≥ 2 HAIs were €1837.8 (95% CI 1257.8-2417.7, p < 0.001) and €5142.5 (95% CI 4262.3-6022.7, p < 0.001), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first economic evaluation of HAIs in Serbia, showing significant additional costs to our healthcare system. HAIs prolong LOS and influence ICU mortality rates. Larger economic assessments are needed to enhance infection control practices.

Multinational prospective cohort study of rates and risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia over 24 years in 42 countries of Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East: Findings of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC).

Objective: Rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) are several times above those of high-income countries. The objective of this study was to identify risk factors (RFs) for VAP cases in ICUs of LMICs. Design: Prospective cohort study. Setting: This study was conducted across 743 ICUs of 282 hospitals in 144 cities in 42 Asian, African, European, Latin American, and Middle Eastern countries. Participants: The study included patients admitted to ICUs across 24 years. Results: In total, 289,643 patients were followed during 1,951,405 patient days and acquired 8,236 VAPs. We analyzed 10 independent variables. Multiple logistic regression identified the following independent VAP RFs: male sex (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.22; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.16-1.28; P < .0001); longer length of stay (LOS), which increased the risk 7% per day (aOR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.07-1.08; P < .0001); mechanical ventilation (MV) utilization ratio (aOR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.23-1.31; P < .0001); continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), which was associated with the highest risk (aOR, 13.38; 95% CI, 11.57-15.48; P < .0001); tracheostomy connected to a MV, which was associated with the next-highest risk (aOR, 8.31; 95% CI, 7.21-9.58; P < .0001); endotracheal tube connected to a MV (aOR, 6.76; 95% CI, 6.34-7.21; P < .0001); surgical hospitalization (aOR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.17-1.29; P < .0001); admission to a public hospital (aOR, 1.59; 95% CI, 1.35-1.86; P < .0001); middle-income country (aOR, 1.22; 95% CI, 15-1.29; P < .0001); admission to an adult-oncology ICU, which was associated with the highest risk (aOR, 4.05; 95% CI, 3.22-5.09; P < .0001), admission to a neurologic ICU, which was associated with the next-highest risk (aOR, 2.48; 95% CI, 1.78-3.45; P < .0001); and admission to a respiratory ICU (aOR, 2.35; 95% CI, 1.79-3.07; P < .0001). Admission to a coronary ICU showed the lowest risk (aOR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.51-0.77; P < .0001). Conclusions: Some identified VAP RFs are unlikely to change: sex, hospitalization type, ICU type, facility ownership, and country income level. Based on our results, we recommend focusing on strategies to reduce LOS, to reduce the MV utilization ratio, to limit CPAP use and implementing a set of evidence-based VAP prevention recommendations.

Microbiology of Healthcare-Associated Infections: Results of a Fourth National Point Prevalence Survey in Serbia.

Millions of patients acquire healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) every year, putting them at risk for serious complications and prolonged hospitalization. Point prevalence surveys (PPS), guided by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control framework, are one of the primary methods by which countries in the European Union conduct surveillance of HAIs. Serbia, though not in the EU, implemented this approach in its national PPS. The microbiological and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) analyses comprised patients in 61 out of 65 hospitals included in the fourth PPS conducted in November 2017. A total of 515/12,380 (4.2%) of the adult patients included in the PPS had at least one HAI, with intensive care units carrying the highest prevalence of 15.9%. Urinary tract and surgical site infections were the most frequently identified types of HAIs (23.9% and 23.0%, respectively). Enterobacterales comprised almost half (47.0%) of all causative agents, most notably Klebsiella spp. (16.7%). AMR was very high for most pathogens-80.5% of nonfermentative Gram-negative bacilli were resistant to carbapenems whereas 62.9% of Enterobacterales were resistant to third generation cephalosporins. The calculated AMR index of 61% is one of the highest in Europe. Further efforts are needed to reduce the burden of HAIs in Serbia that carry very high resistance rates to antibiotics currently used in clinical practice.

A nationwide assessment of the burden of healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial use among surgical patients: results from Serbian point prevalence survey, 2017.

BACKGROUND: As the only non-European Union (EU) country, Serbia participated in a second point prevalence survey of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) and antimicrobial use (AMU) organized by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) in the EU countries. Here, we aimed to estimate the prevalence of HAI and AMU in patients who had recently undergone a surgery and to compare risk profile, HAI rates, and AMU among surgical patients and non-surgical patients. METHODS: A national PPS was performed in 65 Serbian acute-care hospitals, in November 2017. In this paper, the data of 61 hospitals for adult acute-care were analyzed. To ensure the comparability of study design we used the Serbian translation of ECDC case definitions and ECDC PPS protocol. The trained infection control staff, led by a hospital coordinator, reviewed medical records to identify HAI active at the time of the survey and AMU. Only inpatients admitted to the ward before 8 a.m. on the day if the survey were included. RESULTS: A total of 12,478 patients from 61 hospitals for adult acute-care were eligible for inclusion in this study. Significantly higher proportions of surgical patients were female, belonged to the 60-to-79 age group, and were less severely ill. Also, extrinsic factors (invasive devices, hospitalization at the ICU, and prior antibiotics therapy) were more frequent in surgical patients. Prevalence of HAIs was higher among surgical patients (261/3626; 7.2%) than among non-surgical patients (258/8852; 2.9%) (p < 0.0001). The highest prevalence of all HAIs was noted in patients who had kidney transplantation (4/11; 36.4%), while SSIs were the most prevalent among patients who had peripheral vascular bypass surgery (3/15; 20.0%). Non-surgical patients received treatment for community-acquired infections in significantly higher proportion (2664/8852; 64.3) (p < 0.001). Surgical prophylaxis for more than 1 day was applied in 71.4% of surgical patients. CONCLUSION: We have provided an insight into the burden of HAIs and AMU among Serbia acute-care hospitals, and highlighted several priority areas and targets for quality improvement.

Six-year multicenter study on short-term peripheral venous catheters-related bloodstream infection rates in 727 intensive care units of 268 hospitals in 141 cities of 42 countries of Africa, the Americas, Eastern Mediterranean, Europe, South East Asia, and Western Pacific Regions: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings.

BACKGROUND: Short-term peripheral venous catheter-related bloodstream infection (PVCR-BSI) rates have not been systematically studied in resource-limited countries, and data on their incidence by number of device days are not available. METHODS: Prospective, surveillance study on PVCR-BSI conducted from September 1, 2013, to May 31, 2019, in 727 intensive care units (ICUs), by members of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC), from 268 hospitals in 141 cities of 42 countries of Africa, the Americas, Eastern Mediterranean, Europe, South East Asia, and Western Pacific regions. For this research, we applied definition and criteria of the CDC NHSN, methodology of the INICC, and software named INICC Surveillance Online System. RESULTS: We followed 149,609 ICU patients for 731,135 bed days and 743,508 short-term peripheral venous catheter (PVC) days. We identified 1,789 PVCR-BSIs for an overall rate of 2.41 per 1,000 PVC days. Mortality in patients with PVC but without PVCR-BSI was 6.67%, and mortality was 18% in patients with PVC and PVCR-BSI. The length of stay of patients with PVC but without PVCR-BSI was 4.83 days, and the length of stay was 9.85 days in patients with PVC and PVCR-BSI. Among these infections, the microorganism profile showed 58% gram-negative bacteria: Escherichia coli (16%), Klebsiella spp (11%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (6%), Enterobacter spp (4%), and others (20%) including Serratia marcescens. Staphylococcus aureus were the predominant gram-positive bacteria (12%). CONCLUSIONS: PVCR-BSI rates in INICC ICUs were much higher than rates published from industrialized countries. Infection prevention programs must be implemented to reduce the incidence of PVCR-BSIs in resource-limited countries.

International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) report, data summary of 45 countries for 2012-2017: Device-associated module.

BACKGROUND: We report the results of International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) surveillance study from January 2012 to December 2017 in 523 intensive care units (ICUs) in 45 countries from Latin America, Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, Southeast Asia, and Western Pacific. METHODS: During the 6-year study period, prospective data from 532,483 ICU patients hospitalized in 242 hospitals, for an aggregate of 2,197,304 patient days, were collected through the INICC Surveillance Online System (ISOS). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-National Healthcare Safety Network (CDC-NHSN) definitions for device-associated health care-associated infection (DA-HAI) were applied. RESULTS: Although device use in INICC ICUs was similar to that reported from CDC-NHSN ICUs, DA-HAI rates were higher in the INICC ICUs: in the medical-surgical ICUs, the pooled central line-associated bloodstream infection rate was higher (5.05 vs 0.8 per 1,000 central line-days); the ventilator-associated pneumonia rate was also higher (14.1 vs 0.9 per 1,000 ventilator-days,), as well as the rate of catheter-associated urinary tract infection (5.1 vs 1.7 per 1,000 catheter-days). From blood cultures samples, frequencies of resistance, such as of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to piperacillin-tazobactam (33.0% vs 18.3%), were also higher. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a significant trend toward the reduction in INICC ICUs, DA-HAI rates are still much higher compared with CDC-NHSN's ICUs representing the developed world. It is INICC's main goal to provide basic and cost-effective resources, through the INICC Surveillance Online System to tackle the burden of DA-HAIs effectively.

Socioeconomic and therapy factor influence on self-reported fatigue, anxiety and depression in rheumatoid arthritis patients / Influência de fatores socioeconômicos e de tratamento sobre a fadiga, ansiedade e depressão autorrelatadas em pacientes com artrite reumatoide

Abstract Introduction: Fatigue, anxiety and depression are very frequent symptoms in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Goals: In this study we evaluated the influence of socioeconomic characteristics, therapy and comorbidities on the self-reported high fatigue, anxiety and depression in patients with RA. Method: Multicenter cross-sectional study was performed in 22 health institutions in Serbia during the period from April-August 2014 in population of older RA patients. Self-reported patients health status was measured by: Fatigue Assessment Scale, Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7. Treatment modalities were defined as: (1) non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and/or analgesics and/or corticosteroids; (2) synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) alone or in combination with corticosteroids and/or NSAIDs and (3) any RA treatment which includes biologic DMARDs. Results: There were significant predictors of high depression: synthetic DMARDs therapy in combination with corticosteroids and/or NSAIDs, physiotherapist self-payment, frequent taxi use, alternative treatment and employment status. The need for another person's assistance, supplemental calcium therapy and professional qualifications were the predictors of a high fatigue, whereas the age above 65 years had the protective effect on it. Anxiety was an independent high fatigue predictor. The predictors of a high anxiety were: gastroprotection with proton-pump inhibitors and patient occupation. Conclusion Socioeconomic predictors of self-reported high depression, anxiety or fatigue are different for each of the mentioned outcomes, while accompanied with the basic RA treatment they exclusively explain a high depression. The anxiety, jointed with the socioeconomic variables and supplemental therapy, is a significant fatigue predictor in RA patients.

Resumo Introdução: A fadiga, a ansiedade e a depressão são sintomas muito frequentes em pacientes com artrite reumatoide (AR). Objetivos: Neste estudo, avaliou-se a influência de características socioeconômicas, características de tratamento e comorbidades na elevação na fadiga, ansiedade e depressão autorrelatadas em pacientes com AR. Método: Este estudo transversal multicêntrico foi feito em 22 instituições de saúde na Sérvia de abril a agosto de 2014 na população de pacientes idosos com AR. O status de saúde autorrelatado dos pacientes foi medido pelos instrumentos Fatigue Assessment Scale, Patient Health Questionnaire-9 e Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7. As modalidades de tratamento foram definidas como: 1) anti-inflamatórios não esteroides (AINE) e/ou analgésicos e/ou corticosteroides; 2) fármacos antirreumáticos modificadores da doença sintéticos (DMARD) isoladamente ou em combinação com corticosteroides e/ou AINE e 3) qualquer tratamento para a AR que incluísse DMARD biológicos. Resultados: Houve preditores significativos de depressão elevada: tratamento com DMARD sintéticos em combinação com corticosteroides e/ou AINE, pagamento particular de fisioterapia, uso frequente de serviços de táxi, terapias alternativas e status ocupacional. A necessidade de assistência de outra pessoa, o tratamento suplementar com cálcio e as qualificações profissionais foram os preditores de fadiga elevada. A idade acima de 65 anos teve um efeito protetor sobre a fadiga elevada. A ansiedade foi um preditor independente de fadiga elevada. Os preditores ansiedade elevada foram: gastroproteção com inibidores da bomba de prótons e ocupação do paciente. Conclusão: Os preditores socioeconômicos de níveis elevados de depressão, ansiedade ou fadiga autorrelatadas são diferentes para cada um dos desfechos mencionados; quando acompanhados do tratamento básico para a AR, esses preditores socioeconômicos explicam exclusivamente uma depressão elevada. A ansiedade, associada às variáveis socioeconômicas e ao tratamento complementar, é um importante preditor da fadiga em pacientes com AR.

Socioeconomic and therapy factor influence on self-reported fatigue, anxiety and depression in rheumatoid arthritis patients.

INTRODUCTION: Fatigue, anxiety and depression are very frequent symptoms in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). GOALS: In this study we evaluated the influence of socioeconomic characteristics, therapy and comorbidities on the self-reported high fatigue, anxiety and depression in patients with RA. METHOD: Multicenter cross-sectional study was performed in 22 health institutions in Serbia during the period from April-August 2014 in population of older RA patients. Self-reported patients health status was measured by: Fatigue Assessment Scale, Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7. Treatment modalities were defined as: (1) non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and/or analgesics and/or corticosteroids; (2) synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) alone or in combination with corticosteroids and/or NSAIDs and (3) any RA treatment which includes biologic DMARDs. RESULTS: There were significant predictors of high depression: synthetic DMARDs therapy in combination with corticosteroids and/or NSAIDs, physiotherapist self-payment, frequent taxi use, alternative treatment and employment status. The need for another person's assistance, supplemental calcium therapy and professional qualifications were the predictors of a high fatigue, whereas the age above 65 years had the protective effect on it. Anxiety was an independent high fatigue predictor. The predictors of a high anxiety were: gastroprotection with proton-pump inhibitors and patient occupation. CONCLUSION: Socioeconomic predictors of self-reported high depression, anxiety or fatigue are different for each of the mentioned outcomes, while accompanied with the basic RA treatment they exclusively explain a high depression. The anxiety, jointed with the socioeconomic variables and supplemental therapy, is a significant fatigue predictor in RA patients.

International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium report, data summary of 50 countries for 2010-2015: Device-associated module.

BACKGROUND: We report the results of International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) surveillance study from January 2010-December 2015 in 703 intensive care units (ICUs) in Latin America, Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, Southeast Asia, and Western Pacific. METHODS: During the 6-year study period, using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Healthcare Safety Network (CDC-NHSN) definitions for device-associated health care-associated infection (DA-HAI), we collected prospective data from 861,284 patients hospitalized in INICC hospital ICUs for an aggregate of 3,506,562 days. RESULTS: Although device use in INICC ICUs was similar to that reported from CDC-NHSN ICUs, DA-HAI rates were higher in the INICC ICUs: in the INICC medical-surgical ICUs, the pooled rate of central line-associated bloodstream infection, 4.1 per 1,000 central line-days, was nearly 5-fold higher than the 0.8 per 1,000 central line-days reported from comparable US ICUs, the overall rate of ventilator-associated pneumonia was also higher, 13.1 versus 0.9 per 1,000 ventilator-days, as was the rate of catheter-associated urinary tract infection, 5.07 versus 1.7 per 1,000 catheter-days. From blood cultures samples, frequencies of resistance of Pseudomonas isolates to amikacin (29.87% vs 10%) and to imipenem (44.3% vs 26.1%), and of Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates to ceftazidime (73.2% vs 28.8%) and to imipenem (43.27% vs 12.8%) were also higher in the INICC ICUs compared with CDC-NHSN ICUs. CONCLUSIONS: Although DA-HAIs in INICC ICU patients continue to be higher than the rates reported in CDC-NSHN ICUs representing the developed world, we have observed a significant trend toward the reduction of DA-HAI rates in INICC ICUs as shown in each international report. It is INICC's main goal to continue facilitating education, training, and basic and cost-effective tools and resources, such as standardized forms and an online platform, to tackle this problem effectively and systematically.

Molecular typing, pathogenicity factor genes and antimicrobial susceptibility of vancomycin resistant enterococci in Belgrade, Serbia.

In this study the distribution of species and antimicrobial resistance among vancomycin resistant enterococci (VRE) recovered from clinical specimens obtained from five hospitals in Belgrade was analyzed. Strains were further characterized by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to investigate the presence of vanA and vanB genes and pathogenicity factor genes. Identification of 194 VRE isolates revealed 154 Enterococcus faecium, 21 Enterococcus faecalis, 10 Enterococcus raffinosus and 9 Enterococcus gallinarum. This study revealed existence of 8 major clones of VRE. PCR determined vanA gene to be present in all of the VRE studied. Esp and hyl genes were present in 29.22% and 27.92% of E. faecium, respectively, and in 76.19% and 0 of E. faecalis, respectively. Esp and hyl genes were not found more frequently in members of predominant clones of E. faecium than in single isolates; nor was their presence connected to invasiveness.

Risk factors for vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus colonization in hematologic patients.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) is one of the most important hospital pathogens. The aim of the study was to evaluate VRE colonization in patients hospitalized at the Hematology Intensive Care Unit, as well as the associated risk factors. METHODS: A prospective cohort study involved 70 patients hospitalized at the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), Clinic for Hematology, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, during 3 months. Baseline demographic data, data about antibiotic usage and other risk factors for VRE colonization during the present and previous hospitalizations (within 6 months) were recorded for each patient using the questionnaire. Feces or rectal swab was collected for culture from patients on admission and at discharge in case when VRE was not isolated on admission. Enterococci were isolated by standard microbiological methods. Isolate sensitivity was tested by disk-diffusion test using 30 microg/mL (BBL) Vancomycin plates according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) standard. RESULTS: Analysing results showed that 7% of the patients had been already colonized with VRE upon ICU admission. The rate of VRE colonization during present hospitalization was 41.5%. Univariate logistic regression demonstrated the statistically significant differences in diagnosis, length of present stay, use of aminoglycosides and piperacillin/tazobactam in present hospitalization, duration of use of carbapenem and piperacillin/tazobactam in present hospitalization between the VRE-colonized and non-colonized patients. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML), use of carbapenem in previous hospitalization and duration of use of piperacillin/tazobactam in present hospitalization were independent risk factors for VRE-colonized patients according to multivariate logistic regression. CONCLUSION: VRE colonization rate was high among the patients admitted to hematology ICU. Rational use of antibiotics and active surveillance may be helpful preventive measures against the development of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents.

Acinetobacter spp. colonization and infection risk factors in surgical patients.

INTRODUCTION: The results of numerous studies carried out over the last two decades have increasingly important cause of intrahospital infections (IHI). The aim of the study was to determine potential differences in distribution of individual risk factors between the group of patients in whom multiresistant Acinetobacter spp. was isolated and the group of patients in whom it was not. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A prospective cohort study of 64 patients hospitalized with recorded IHI at the University Hospital for Digestive Surgery, Clinical Center of Serbia in the period between January and July 2011. The subjects were divided into two groups: patients with IHI in whom multiresistant Acinetobacter spp. was isolated from the biological material samples, and those with IHI without the presence of Acinetobacter spp. RESULTS: Univariate data analysis indicated presence of statistically significant difference in distribution of certain types of surgeries (esophageal, pancreatic and hepatobiliary) among the two groups of subjects, distribution of CVC placement, application of mechanical ventilation and nasogastric tube placement, length of stay in ICU, lethal outcomes and administration of third generation cephalosporins. The results of multivariate analysis indicated that length of hospitalization in ICU (> 7 days), CVC, mechanical ventilation, esophageal, pancreatic and hepatobiliary surgeries as well as administration of third generation cephalosporins are independent risk factors for colonization and infection of patients with Acinetobacter spp. CONCLUSION: Colonized or infected patients with Acinetobacter spp. play a major role in contamination of hands of the medical staff in the course of care and treatment, while inadequate hand hygiene of the staff leads to cross transmission of the causative organism to infection-free patients. Selective antibiotic pressure, particularly administration of quinolones and broad-spectrum cephalosporins, favor onset of multiresistant species of Acinetobacter spp., and therefore appropriate prophylaxis and treatment represent basic preventive measures against the onset and spreading of the causative organisms.

[Risk factors for the appearance of central venous catheters colonisation].

INTRODUCTION/AIM: Intravascular device placement (IVD) is a part of everyday medical practice, however, its application is associated with a high risk of onset of nosocomial infections (NI) and increased mortality and morbidity. Nosocomial blood infections (NBIs) account for 10% of all the registered NI. NBIs are more frequent in patients with a placed IVD and it present an important risk factor for the onset of NBI, i.e. catheter-associated NBIs (CANBIs). Pathogenesis of CANBIs is complex and conditioned by the presence of different characteristics related to a catheter, patient and a specific causative organism. The most common CRBSI causes include coagulase-negative staphylococcus, S. aureus, Enterobacter spp, Candida spp, Klebsiella spp, Pseudomonas spp. and Enterococcus spp. METHODS: All the patients hospitalized at the Intensive Care Department of the Clinic of Digestive Diseases over the period January 1, 2004-September 1, 2004 were retrospectively analyzed. The study included 107 patients in whom central venous catheter (CVC) was placed for more than 48 h. All the causes isolated from a CVC segment were recorded. Culture, isolation and identification of the causative organisms were performed using standard microbiological methods in the Bacteriological Laboratory within the Emergency Center, Clinical Center of Serbia. Catheter segment samples (tip of the CVC 3-5 cm long) were analyzed. Based on the insight into medical documentation, patients' examination and medical staff interview, catheter and patient-related characteristics were recorded. RESULTS: A total of 107 CVCs were analyzed, out of which 56 (52%) were sterile while 51 (48%) were colonized. The results of our study evidenced that total parenteral nutrition (TPN) (p < 0.05), number of catheterization days (p < 0.05), and central venous pressure measurement (p < 0.05) were significantly associated with CVC colonization. In this study, no statistically significant difference in catheter colonization was found with respect to sex, age, anatomical insertion site and CVC placement site. CONCLUSION: According to the results of our study, TPN, the number of catheterization days and measurement of central venous pressure play major roles in colonization of CVC. Understanding risk factors associated with CVC colonization and onset of CANBIs is a prerequisite for quality preventive work of health professionals.

[Nosocomial infections in the intensive care units].

BACKGROUND/AIM: The risk for nosocomial infections (NIs) is 5-10 times higher in patients hospitalized in the Intensive Care Units (ICUs) than in patients staying in other wards. The higher incidence rates of NIs in the ICUs may be explained by the fact that the patients in the ICUs have more severe underlying disease, and are exposed to the invasive diagnostic and therapeutical procedures. The unreasonable use of antibiotics leads to the selection of multiresistant agents, which have been increasingly recorded as the NIs causative agents. The aim of this study was to investigate the characteristics of NIs in the ICUs in the period January-June 2005. METHODS: The study of incidence was performed in accordance with the methodology of the Centers for Diseases and Prevention. Any infections in the patients hospitalized in the ICUs in the period from January to June 2005 were registered. The results both from medical documentation and from the direct contacts with the medical personnel were analyzed. The samples were tested using standard methods in the microbiological laboratory. RESULTS: The incidence rates of NIs patients ranged from 1.5 to 40.8, and the incidence rates of infections were 1.5 to 65.6 per 1 000 patient's days. Out of the total number of NIs, urinary infections accounted for 44.6%, blood infections for 37.6%, and surgical site infections for 16.9%. CONCLUSION: The most frequent cause of nosocomial urinary infections was Klebsiella, of nosocomial sepsis--coagulase--negative staphylococci, and of surgical site infections--Staphylococcus aureus.