Association between maternal HIV status and postpartum depressive symptoms in Botswana.

Few studies have evaluated postpartum depression (PPD) in women living with HIV (WLHIV) in Botswana, a high prevalence HIV setting. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to evaluate PPD symptoms in WLHIV (n = 300) and women who are HIV-uninfected (n = 131) in the Tshilo Dikotla study, an observational cohort study with a nested randomized trial. The EPDS was administered at 2, 6, and 12 months postpartum. We assessed the association of (1) HIV infection and (2) antiretroviral therapy (ART) with odds of PPD symptoms (EPDS ≥ 10 or thoughts of self-harm) in the first year postpartum using generalized estimating equations. Of WLHIV, 24 (8.00%) had PPD symptoms at one or more follow-up time points, compared to 9 (6.9%) women who were HIV-seronegative. There was no association between HIV status and PPD symptoms (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]:1.69, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.73-3.93, p = 0.225); however, WLHIV on efavirenz-based ART regimens had higher odds of experiencing PPD symptoms compared to dolutegravir-based ART (aOR:3.05, 95% CI:1.16-8.03, p = 0.024).

How much could anemia-related interventions reduce the HIV disparity in adverse birth outcomes?

Women and other people of childbearing potential living with HIV (WLHIV) have a higher risk of adverse birth outcomes than those without HIV (WWHIV). A higher risk of anemia in WLHIV could partially explain this disparity. Using a birth outcomes surveillance study in Botswana, we emulated target trials corresponding to currently available or feasible interventions on anemia. The first target trial evaluated two interventions: initiate multiple micronutrient supplementation (MMS), and MMS or iron and folic acid supplementation by 24 weeks gestation. The remaining target trials evaluated the interventions: eliminate anemia before pregnancy; and jointly eliminate anemia before pregnancy and initiate MMS. We estimated the observed disparity in adverse birth outcomes between WLHIV and WWHIV and compared the observed disparity measure (ODM) to the counterfactual disparity measure (CDM) under each intervention. Of 137,499 individuals (22% WLHIV), the observed risk of any adverse birth outcome was 26.0% in WWHIV and 34.5% in WLHIV (ODM, 8.5% [95% CI, 7.9-9.1%]). CDMs (95% CIs) ranged from 6.6% (4.8-8.4%) for the intervention to eliminate anemia and initiate MMS to 8.4% (7.7-9.1%) for the intervention to eliminate anemia only. Preventing anemia and expanding MMS may reduce HIV disparities in birth outcomes, but interventions with greater impact should be identified.

Lower Insulin Sensitivity Through 36 Months of Life With in Utero HIV and Antiretroviral Exposure in Botswana: Results From the Tshilo Dikotla Study.

BACKGROUND: There are little data on changes in insulin sensitivity during the first few years of life following in utero human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and antiretroviral (ARV) exposure. METHODS: The Tshilo Dikotla study enrolled pregnant persons with HIV (PWH) (receiving tenofovir/emtricitabine or lamivudine plus dolutegravir or efavirenz) and pregnant individuals without HIV, as well as their liveborn children. Newborns were randomized to receive either zidovudine (AZT) or nevirapine (NVP) postnatal prophylaxis. Homeostasis Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) was assessed at birth and 1, 18, 24, and 36 months of life. We fit linear mixed-effects models to evaluate the association between in utero HIV/ARV exposure and average HOMA-IR from birth through 36 months of life, adjusting for confounders. RESULTS: A total of 419 children were included (287 with in utero HIV/ARV exposure and uninfected [CHEU] and 132 without in utero HIV/ARV exposure [CHUU]). CHEU were born to older women (29.6 vs 25.3 years of age) with higher gravidity (3 vs 1). HOMA-IR was persistently higher in CHEU versus CHUU in adjusted analyses (mean difference of 0.07 in log10 HOMA-IR, P  = .02) from birth through 36 months of life. Among CHEU, no differences in HOMA-IR were observed from birth through 36 months by in utero ARV exposure status or between AZT and NVP infant prophylaxis arms. CONCLUSIONS: In utero HIV/ARV exposure was associated with lower insulin sensitivity throughout the first 36 months of life, indicating persistent early life metabolic disturbances which may raise concern for poorer metabolic health later in life.

Hepatitis B surface antigen loss in individuals with chronic hepatitis B virus and HIV-1 infections in Botswana.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to determine hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) loss and its predictors among people with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infections and HIV (PWH) in Botswana. METHODS: Archived plasma samples from a cohort of PWH in Botswana (2013-2018) with 3 yearly time-points were used. Samples were screened for HBsAg, immunoglobulin M HBV core antibodies (anti-HBc IgM) and HBV e-antigen (HBeAg) at all time points. HBV deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) quantification was done at baseline. The Wilcoxon rank-sum was used to compare continuous variables while the chi-squared test and Fishers exact test were used for categorical data wherever appropriate. Logistic regression was used to assess predictors of seroclearance. RESULTS: Of 141 participants with HBsAg-positive serology (HBsAg+) at baseline, 92.2% (131/141) [95% confidence interval (CI) 87.4-96.1] were persistently HBsAg+ at year 1. We report a HBsAg loss of 7.1% (10/141) (95% CI 3.9-12.6) among participants with negative HBeAg and negative IgM serologies. HBsAg loss was 6.3% (7/111) among antiretroviral therapy (ART)-experienced participants and 10.7% (3/28) (95% CI 0.4-5.0) in ART-naive participants. Most participants who had positive anti-HBc IgM serology and did not lose HBsAg were on either lamivudine (3TC)-based therapy or non-tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)-based therapy, except for one participant. The participants also had varying HBeAg status. HBsAg loss was independent of HIV viral load, CD4 + cell count, age, and sex. CONCLUSION: We report a HBsAg loss of 6.3% over a 3-year period among ART-experienced CHB participants. Future studies that focus on HBsAg loss in mono-infected patients and the possible correlation between HBeAg status and HBsAg loss are warranted.

Safety of AZD1222 COVID-19 vaccine and low Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Botswana following ChAdOx1(AZD1222) vaccination: A single-arm open-label interventional study - final study results.

Objectives: We report the final analysis of the single-arm open-label study evaluating the safety and COVID-19 incidence after AZD1222 vaccination in Botswana conducted between September 2021 and August 2022. Methods: The study included three groups of adults (>18 years), homologous AZD1222 primary series and booster (AZ2), heterologous primary series with one dose AZD1222, and AZD1222 booster (HPS), and primary series other than AZD1222 and AZD1222 booster (OPS). We compared the incidence of AEs in participants with and without prior COVID-19 infection using an exact test for rate ratios. Results: Among 10,894 participants, 9192 (84.4%) were enrolled at first vaccine dose, 521 (4.8%) at second vaccine, and 1181 (10.8%) at the booster vaccine. Of 10,855 included in the full analysis set, 1700 received one dose of AZD1222; 5377 received two doses; 98 received a heterologous series including one AZD1222 and a booster; 30 in the HPS group; 1058 in the OPS group; and 2592 in the AZ2 group. No laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 hospitalizations or deaths were reported. The incidence of laboratory-confirmed symptomatic COVID infection for the AZ2 group was 6.22 (95% confidence interval: 2.51-12.78) per 1000 participant-years (1000-PY) and 3.5 (95% confidence interval: 0.42-12.57) per 1000-PY for AZ2+booster group. Most adverse events were mild, with higher incidence in participants with prior COVID-19 infection. Individuals with prior COVID-19 exposure exhibited higher binding antibody responses. No differences in outcomes were observed by HIV status. Conclusion: AZD1222 is safe, effective, and immunogenic for people living with and without HIV.

Lower academic performance among children with perinatal HIV exposure in Botswana.

INTRODUCTION: Studies have reported a higher risk of suboptimal neurodevelopment among children who are HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) compared to children HIV-unexposed uninfected (HUU). Actual academic performance among school-aged children by HIV exposure status has not been studied. METHODS: Academic performance in Mathematics, Science, English, Setswana and overall among children enrolled in the Botswana-based FLOURISH study who were attending public primary school and ranging in age from 7.1 to 14.6 years were compared by HIV exposure status using a Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel test. Lower academic performance was defined as a grade of "C" or lower (≤60%). Unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models were fit to assess for an association between HIV exposure and lower academic performance. RESULTS: Between April 2021 and December 2022, 398 children attending public primary school enrolled in the FLOURSH study, 307 (77%) were HEU. Median age was 9.4 years (IQR 8.9-10.2). Only 17.9% of children HEU were breastfeed versus 100% of children HUU. Among children HEU, 80.3% had foetal exposure to three-drug antiretroviral treatment, 18.7% to zidovudine only and 1.0% had no antiretroviral exposure. Caregivers of children HEU were older compared to caregivers of children HUU (median 42 vs. 36 years) and more likely to have no or primary education only (15.0% vs. 1.1%). In unadjusted analyses, children HEU were more likely to have lower overall academic performance compared to their children HUU (odds ratio [OR]: 1.96 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.16, 3.30]), and lower performance in Mathematics, Science and English. The association was attenuated after adjustment for maternal education, caregiver income, breastfeeding, low birth weight and child sex (aOR: 1.86 [95% CI: 0.78, 4.43]). CONCLUSIONS: In this Botswana-based cohort, primary school academic performance was lower among children HEU compared to children HUU. Biological and socio-demographic factors, including child sex, appear to contribute to this difference. Further research is needed to identify modifiable contributors, develop screening tools to identify the risk of poor academic performance and design interventions to mitigate risk.

The impact of free antiretroviral therapy for pregnant non-citizens and their infants in Botswana.

INTRODUCTION: In December 2019, the Botswana government expanded free antiretroviral therapy (ART) to include non-citizens. We evaluated the impact of this policy change on antenatal care (ANC), antiretroviral therapy coverage and adverse birth outcomes. METHODS: The Tsepamo Surveillance study collects data at up to 18 delivery sites in Botswana. We compared outcomes in citizens and non-citizens living with HIV before and after antiretroviral therapy expansion to non-citizens. Adverse birth outcomes included preterm delivery (PTD) <37 weeks, very preterm delivery (VPTD) <32 weeks, small for gestational age (SGA) <10th percentile, very small for gestational age (VSGA) <3rd percentile, stillbirth and neonatal death. Log-binomial regression models were constructed to generate risk ratios. RESULTS: From August 2014 to September 2021, 45,576 (96.5%) citizens and 1513 (3.2%) non-citizens living with HIV delivered; 954 (62.9%) non-citizen deliveries were before the antiretroviral therapy expansion, and 562 (37.1%) were after. Non-citizen ANC attendance among pregnant people living with HIV increased from 79.2% pre-expansion to 87.2% post-expansion (p<0.001), and became more similar to citizens (96.0% post-expansion). Non-citizens receiving any antenatal antiretroviral therapy increased from 65.5% pre-expansion to 89.9% post-expansion (p < 0.001), also more similar to citizens (97.2% post-expansion). Infants born to non-citizens with singleton gestations in the pre-expansion period had significantly greater risk of PTD (aRR = 1.28, 95% CI, 1.11, 1.46), VPTD (aRR = 1.89, 95% CI, 1.43, 2.44) and neonatal death (aRR = 1.69, 95% CI, 1.03, 2.60), but reduced SGA risk (aRR = 0.75; 95% CI, 0.62, 0.89) compared with citizens. Post-expansion, greater declines in most adverse outcomes were observed in non-citizens, with largely similar outcomes between non-citizens and citizens. Non-significant differences were observed for non-citizenship in PTD (aRR = 0.84, 95% CI, 0.66, 1.06), VPTD (aRR = 0.57, 95% CI, 0.28, 1.01), SGA (aRR = 0.91, 95% CI, 0.72, 1.13), VSGA (aRR = 0.87, 95% CI, 0.58, 1.25), stillbirth (aRR = 0.71, 95% CI, 0.35, 1.27) and neonatal death (aRR = 1.35, 95% CI, 0.60, 2.62). CONCLUSIONS: Following the expansion of free antiretroviral therapy to non-citizens, gaps narrowed in ANC and antiretroviral therapy use in pregnancy between citizens and non-citizens living with HIV. Disparities in adverse birth outcomes were no longer observed.

Prevalence and control of hypertension in a high HIV-prevalence setting, insights from a population based study in Botswana.

In a population-based representative sample of adults residing in 22 communities in Botswana, a southern African country with high HIV prevalence, 1 in 4 individuals had high blood pressure. High blood pressure was less prevalent in adults with HIV than without HIV. Sixty percent of persons with high blood pressure had not previously been diagnosed. Among individuals with a prior diagnosis of high blood pressure who reported being prescribed anti-hypertension medications, almost half had elevated blood pressure, irrespective of HIV-status. One-third of adults in this setting (mainly men) declined free non-invasive blood pressure assessments in their households. In conclusion, our study highlights alarmingly high hypertension rates in the community, with low levels of awareness and control, emphasizing the urgent need for community level BP screening and active management to reach recommended targets.

Emulating Target Trials to Avoid Immortal Time Bias - An Application to Antibiotic Initiation and Preterm Delivery.

BACKGROUND: Randomized trials in pregnancy are extremely challenging, and observational studies are often the only option to evaluate medication safety during pregnancy. However, such studies are often susceptible to immortal time bias if treatment initiation occurs after time zero of follow-up. We describe how emulating a sequence of target trials avoids immortal time bias and apply the approach to estimate the safety of antibiotic initiation between 24 and 37 weeks gestation on preterm delivery. METHODS: The Tsepamo Study captured birth outcomes at hospitals throughout Botswana from 2014 to 2021. We emulated 13 sequential target trials of antibiotic initiation versus no initiation among individuals presenting to care <24 weeks, one for each week from 24 to 37 weeks. For each trial, eligible individuals had not previously initiated antibiotics. We also conducted an analysis susceptible to immortal time bias by defining time zero as 24 weeks and exposure as antibiotic initiation between 24 and 37 weeks. We calculated adjusted risk ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for preterm delivery. RESULTS: Of 111,403 eligible individuals, 17,009 (15.3%) initiated antibiotics between 24 and 37 weeks. In the sequence of target trials, RRs (95% CIs) ranged from 1.04 (0.90, 1.19) to 1.24 (1.11, 1.39) (pooled RR: 1.11 [1.06, 1.15]). In the analysis susceptible to immortal time bias, the RR was 0.90 (0.86, 0.94). CONCLUSIONS: Defining exposure as antibiotic initiation at any time during follow-up after time zero resulted in substantial immortal time bias, making antibiotics appear protective against preterm delivery. Conducting a sequence of target trials can avoid immortal time bias in pregnancy studies.

Association of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Infection With Maternal Mortality and Neonatal Birth Outcomes in Botswana by Human Immunodeficiency Virus Status.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the combined association of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection on adverse birth outcomes in an HIV-endemic region. METHODS: The Tsepamo Study abstracts data from antenatal and obstetric records in government maternity wards across Botswana. We assessed maternal mortality and adverse birth outcomes for all singleton pregnancies from September 2020 to mid-November 2021 at 13 Tsepamo sites among individuals with documented SARS-CoV-2 screening tests and known HIV status. RESULTS: Of 20,410 individuals who gave birth, 11,483 (56.3%) were screened for SARS-CoV-2 infection; 4.7% tested positive. People living with HIV were more likely to test positive (144/2,421, 5.9%) than those without HIV (392/9,030, 4.3%) (P=.001). Maternal deaths occurred in 3.7% of those who had a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result compared with 0.1% of those who tested negative (adjusted relative risk [aRR] 31.6, 95% CI 15.4-64.7). Maternal mortality did not differ by HIV status. The offspring of individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection experienced more overall adverse birth outcomes (34.5% vs 26.6%; aRR 1.2, 95% CI 1.1-1.4), severe adverse birth outcomes (13.6% vs 9.8%; aRR 1.2, 95% CI 1.0-1.5), preterm delivery (21.4% vs 13.4%; aRR 1.4, 95% CI 1.2-1.7), and stillbirth (5.6% vs 2.7%; aRR 1.7 95% CI 1.2-2.5). Neonates exposed to SARS-CoV-2 and HIV infection had the highest prevalence of adverse birth outcomes (43.1% vs 22.6%; aRR 1.7, 95% CI 1.4-2.0). CONCLUSION: Infection with SARS-CoV-2 at the time of delivery was associated with 3.7% maternal mortality and 5.6% stillbirth in Botswana. Most adverse birth outcomes were worse among neonates exposed to both SARS-CoV-2 and HIV infection.

High Prevalence of Hepatitis B Virus Infection Among People With HIV in Rural and Periurban Communities in Botswana.

Background: We aimed to determine the prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection among people with human immunodeficiency virus (PWH) in rural and periurban communities in Botswana. Methods: PWH from a previous population-based study, the Botswana Prevention Combination Project, which enrolled adults in 30 communities across Botswana (2013-2018), were screened for HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) and HBV core antibody (anti-HBc). HBsAg-positive (HBsAg+) samples were further screened for HBV core immunoglobulin M antibodies (anti-HBc immunoglobulin M [IgM]) and HBV e antigen (HBeAg). We quantified HBV viral load on participants who tested positive (n = 148) and negative for HBsAg (n = 381). Results: Of 3304 participants tested, 271 (8% [95% confidence interval {CI}, 7%-9%]) were HBsAg+ while 1788 (56% [95% CI, 54%-57%]) of 3218 PWH whom we tested had positive anti-HBc. Approximately 88% of HBsAg+ participants were on antiretroviral therapy (ART), 40% and 56% of whom were receiving lamivudine- and tenofovir-containing ART, respectively. Male sex (relative risk ratio [RRR], 1.8 [95% CI, 1.2-2.7]) and the northern geographic region (RRR, 2.5 [95% CI, 1.4-4.7]) were independent predictors of HBV infection (HBsAg+). Of 381 persons with negative HBsAg who were tested for occult HBV, 126 (33% [95% CI, 29%-38%]) had positive HBV DNA. Eleven participants were highly viremic with high HBV viral load while on a lamivudine- or tenofovir-containing regimen. Ten (91%) of these participants also had positive HBeAg serology, while 4 (36%) had positive anti-HBc IgM serology. Conclusions: The prevalence of HBV was high among PWH in Botswana while on ART regimens with activity against HBV.

Incident HIV acquisition among pregnant women in Botswana: findings from the Tsepamo birth outcomes surveillance study.

INTRODUCTION: In Botswana, where almost all pregnant women known to have HIV receive antiretroviral therapy, a large proportion of vertical HIV transmission may occur among women with incident undiagnosed HIV infection during pregnancy. Botswana guidelines recommend repeat HIV testing every 3 months in pregnancy, with at least one test in the third trimester. We evaluated the rate of repeat HIV testing, calculated HIV incidence during pregnancy and estimated missed seroconversions. METHODS: In the Botswana Tsepamo Study, we abstracted HIV test dates and results from obstetric records of all women who delivered at maternity wards in 18 communities between 7th May 2017 and 20th August 2021. We defined seroconversion as an initial negative/indeterminate HIV test in pregnancy followed by a positive test during pregnancy/at delivery. The incidence rate (IR) of seroconversion was calculated among women with > = 2 known test dates. Missed seroconversions were estimated among women without a test in the third trimester by applying the IR to the time after the last HIV test until delivery. RESULTS: Among 103,529 women delivering in the study period testing negative at the first test and with known conception and HIV test dates, 29,085 (28%) were tested in one trimester of pregnancy, 73,156 (71%) were tested in ≥ 2 trimesters of pregnancy and 9628 (9%) had a test in all trimesters. A total of 78,162 (75%) women had a third-trimester test. There were 223 seroconversions (2.58/1000 pregnancies, 0.26%) among those with ≥ 2 known HIV test dates, yielding an IR of 0.69/100 person-years. Among 25,289 women who did not have a test in the third trimester, we estimate approximately 58 seroconversions may have been missed during pregnancy due to a lack of repeat testing. Factors associated with seroconversion during pregnancy included younger age, less education and not being married. CONCLUSIONS: More than two-thirds of women had repeat HIV testing in pregnancy and HIV incidence was low. However, an estimated 21% of seroconversions in pregnancy were likely missed due to a lack of re-testing. To reach the goal of zero new paediatric HIV infections, Botswana will need to intensify repeat HIV testing in the third trimester of pregnancy.

Impact of prophylactic antimalarials in pregnant women living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus on birth outcomes in Botswana.

OBJECTIVES: Until late 2015, Botswana recommended preventive treatment for pregnant women in malarial regions with chloroquine and proguanil (CP). The guideline change provided an opportunity to evaluate CP and adverse birth outcomes. METHODS: The Tsepamo Study performed birth outcomes surveillance at large delivery centres throughout Botswana. We evaluated adverse birth outcomes from 2015 to 2017 at three hospitals where 93% of CP use was recorded. Outcomes included neonatal death (NND), small for gestational age (SGA), very SGA, stillbirth (SB), preterm delivery (PTD) and very PTD. Logistic regression analysis (unadjusted and adjusted) was conducted for each adverse birth outcome. RESULTS: During the study period, 5883 (26%) of 23,033 deliveries were exposed to CP, with the majority (65%) in the most malaria-endemic region. At this site, there was a trend or an association between CP use and reduction of three adverse birth outcomes: PTD (aOR 0.85, 95% CI 0.76-0.96), vPTD (aOR 0.83, 95% CI 0.68-1.01) and NND (aOR 0.65, 95% CI 0.42-1.00). However, at the least malaria-endemic site, the association was in the opposite direction for SB (aOR 1.54, 95% CI 1.08-2.22), SGA (aOR 1.24, 95% CI 1.06-1.44) and vSGA (aOR 1.42, 95% CI 1.14-1.77). The association between CP and reduced PTD was present among women without HIV (aOR 0.77, 95% CI 0.67-0.89) but not among women with HIV (aOR 1.09, 95% CI 0.78-1.35). CONCLUSIONS: Antimalarial prophylaxis was associated with improved birth outcomes in the most malaria-endemic region of Botswana, but not elsewhere. This finding supports current WHO guidance to use prophylaxis strategies among pregnant women in highly malaria-endemic regions. Further studies of the risks and benefits of specific antimalarial regimens in pregnancy are warranted, particularly in areas with lower incidence of malaria.

Lower Insulin Sensitivity in Newborns With In Utero HIV and Antiretroviral Exposure Who Are Uninfected in Botswana.

BACKGROUND: Few data exist on early-life metabolic perturbations in newborns with perinatal HIV and antiretroviral (ARV) exposure but uninfected (HEU) compared to those perinatally HIV unexposed and uninfected (HUU). METHODS: We enrolled pregnant persons with HIV (PWH) receiving tenofovir (TDF)/emtricitabine or lamivudine (XTC) plus dolutegravir (DTG) or efavirenz (EFV), and pregnant individuals without HIV, as well as their liveborn infants. Newborns were randomized to receive either zidovudine (AZT) or nevirapine (NVP) postnatal prophylaxis. Preprandial homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was assessed at birth and 1 month. Linear mixed models were fit to assess the association between in utero HIV/ARV exposure and average HOMA-IR from birth to 1 month, adjusting for confounders. RESULTS: Of 450 newborns, 306 were HEU. HOMA-IR was higher in newborns HEU versus HUU after adjusting for confounders (mean difference of 0.068 in log HOMA-IR, P = .037). Among newborns HEU, HOMA-IR was not significantly different between TDF/XTC/DTG versus TDF/XTC/EFV in utero ARV exposure and between AZT versus NVP newborn postnatal prophylaxis arms. CONCLUSIONS: Newborns HEU versus HUU had lower insulin sensitivity at birth and at 1 month of life, raising potential concern for obesity and other metabolic perturbations later in life for newborns HEU. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT03088410.

Epidemiological and viral characteristics of undiagnosed HIV infections in Botswana.

BACKGROUND: HIV-1 is endemic in Botswana. The country's primary challenge is identifying people living with HIV who are unaware of their status. We evaluated factors associated with undiagnosed HIV infection using HIV-1 phylogenetic, behavioural, and demographic data. METHODS: As part of the Botswana Combination Prevention Project, 20% of households in 30 villages were tested for HIV and followed from 2013 to 2018. A total of 12,610 participants were enrolled, 3596 tested HIV-positive at enrolment, and 147 participants acquired HIV during the trial. Extensive socio-demographic and behavioural data were collected from participants and next-generation sequences were generated for HIV-positive cases. We compared three groups of participants: (1) those previously known to be HIV-positive at enrolment (n = 2995); (2) those newly diagnosed at enrolment (n = 601) and (3) those who tested HIV-negative at enrolment but tested HIV-positive during follow-up (n = 147). We searched for differences in demographic and behavioural factors between known and newly diagnosed group using logistic regression. We also compared the topology of each group in HIV-1 phylogenies and used a genetic diversity-based algorithm to classify infections as recent (< 1 year) or chronic (≥ 1 year). RESULTS: Being male (aOR = 2.23) and younger than 35 years old (aOR = 8.08) was associated with undiagnosed HIV infection (p < 0.001), as was inconsistent condom use (aOR = 1.76). Women were more likely to have undiagnosed infections if they were married, educated, and tested frequently. For men, being divorced increased their risk. The genetic diversity-based algorithm classified most incident infections as recent (75.0%), but almost none of known infections (2.0%). The estimated proportion of recent infections among new diagnoses was 37.0% (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that those with undiagnosed infections are likely to be young men and women who do not use condoms consistently. Among women, several factors were predictive: being married, educated, and testing frequently increased risk. Men at risk were more difficult to delineate. A sizeable proportion of undiagnosed infections were recent based on a genetic diversity-based classifier. In the era of "test and treat all", pre-exposure prophylaxis may be prioritized towards individuals who self-identify or who can be identified using these predictors in order to halt onward transmission in time.

Iron, folic acid, and multiple micronutrient supplementation strategies during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes in Botswana.

BACKGROUND: Antenatal multiple micronutrient supplementation (MMS) with iron, folic acid, and other micronutrients might improve birth outcomes, but it is not currently universally recommended by WHO. METHODS: In this observational cohort study, we surveyed pregnancies for adverse birth outcomes at eight hospitals from July, 2014, to July, 2018, and 18 hospitals from August, 2018, to December, 2020, in Botswana to assess four routine supplementation strategies in women presenting before 24 weeks' gestation: folic acid only, iron only, iron and folic acid supplementation (IFAS), and MMS. Women with singleton pregnancies; a known HIV status, age, and delivery site; haemoglobin measured within 7 days of presenting to antenatal care; and weight measured within 31 days of presenting to care were included in our analysis. Data were abstracted from the maternity obstetric record (a record of antenatal care) at the time of birth from all women giving birth at selected hospitals throughout the country. We estimated risk differences overall and in key subgroups, adjusting for demographic and clinical factors. FINDINGS: Between July 6, 2014, and Dec 8, 2020, 96 341 eligible women (21 659 [22·5%] of whom had HIV) were included in the study. 36 334 (37·7%) women initiated iron only supplementation, 1133 (11·8%) initiated folic acid only supplementation, 23 101 (24·0%) initiated IFAS, and 31 588 (32·8%) women initiated MMS. Women who initiated iron only and folic acid only supplementation had higher risks of stillbirth, preterm birth, very preterm birth, low and very low birthweight, and neonatal death compared with women who received IFAS (adjusted risk differences for iron only supplementation vs IFAS ranged from 0·22% [95% CI 0·04 to 0·40] for neonatal death to 2·39% [1·78 to 3·00] for preterm birth; and adjusted risk differences for folic acid only supplementation vs IFAS ranged from 0·77% [-0·80 to 2·34] for neonatal death to 5·75% [1·38 to 10·13] for preterm birth), with greater difference in women with HIV and those aged 35 years and older. Compared with IFAS, women who initiated MMS had lower risks of preterm and very preterm births, and low and very low birthweight (adjusted risk differences ranged from -0·50% [-0·77 to 0·23] for very preterm birth to -1·06% [-1·69 to -0·42] for preterm birth). INTERPRETATION: Nationwide data from Botswana support improved birth outcomes with MMS compared with IFAS. FUNDING: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

High risk of adverse birth outcomes among adolescents living with HIV in Botswana compared to adult women living with HIV and adolescents without HIV.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent girls are three times more likely to be living with HIV than boys of the same age. Prior studies have found associations between adolescent pregnancies and increased maternal morbidity and infant mortality, but few studies have assessed the impact of HIV infection on maternal and infant outcomes in adolescents. METHODS: The Tsepamo Study abstracts maternal and infant data from obstetric records in government maternity wards in Botswana. We assessed maternal complications and adverse birth outcomes for all singleton pregnancies from August 2014 to August 2020 at eighteen Tsepamo sites among adolescents (defined as 10-19 years of age) and adults (defined as 20-35 years of age), by HIV status. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression using a complete case analysis method were used to evaluate differences in outcomes. RESULTS: This analysis included 142,258 singleton births, 21,133 (14.9%) to adolescents and 121,125 (85.1%) to adults. The proportion of adults living with HIV (N = 22,114, 22.5%) was higher than adolescents (N = 1593, 7.6%). The proportion of most adverse birth outcomes was higher in adolescents. Among adolescents, those with HIV had increased likelihoods of anemia (aOR = 1.89, 95%CI 1.66, 2.15) and cesarean sections (aOR = 1.49, 95%CI 1.3,1.72), and infants with preterm birth (aOR = 1.15, 95%CI 1.0, 1.32), very preterm birth (aOR = 1.35, 95%CI 1.0,1.8), small for gestational age (aOR = 1.37, 95%CI 1.20,1.58), and very small for gestational age (aOR = 1.46, 95%CI 1.20, 1.79). CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent pregnancy and adolescent HIV infection remain high in Botswana. Adolescents have higher risk of adverse maternal and infant birth outcomes than adults, with the worst outcomes among adolescents living with HIV. Linking HIV prevention and family planning strategies for this age group may help minimize the number of infants with poor birth outcomes among this already vulnerable population.

Health Impact and Cost-Effectiveness of HIV Testing, Linkage, and Early Antiretroviral Treatment in the Botswana Combination Prevention Project.

BACKGROUND: The Botswana Combination Prevention Project tested the impact of combination prevention (CP) on HIV incidence in a community-randomized trial. Each trial arm had ∼55,000 people, 26% HIV prevalence, and 72% baseline ART coverage. Results showed intensive testing and linkage campaigns, expanded antiretroviral treatment (ART), and voluntary male medical circumcision referrals increased coverage and decreased incidence over ∼29 months of follow-up. We projected lifetime clinical impact and cost-effectiveness of CP in this population. SETTING: Rural and periurban communities in Botswana. METHODS: We used the Cost-Effectiveness of Preventing AIDS Complications model to estimate lifetime health impact and cost of (1) earlier ART initiation and (2) averting an HIV infection, which we applied to incremental ART initiations and averted infections calculated from trial data. We determined the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio [US$/quality-adjusted life-years (QALY)] for CP vs. standard of care. RESULTS: In CP, 1418 additional people with HIV initiated ART and an additional 304 infections were averted. For each additional person started on ART, life expectancy increased 0.90 QALYs and care costs increased by $869. For each infection averted, life expectancy increased 2.43 QALYs with $9200 in care costs saved. With CP, an additional $1.7 million were spent on prevention and $1.2 million on earlier treatment. These costs were mostly offset by decreased care costs from averted infections, resulting in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $79 per QALY. CONCLUSIONS: Enhanced HIV testing, linkage, and early ART initiation improve life expectancy, reduce transmission, and can be cost-effective or cost-saving in settings like Botswana.

HIV-1 drug resistance mutations among individuals with low-level viraemia while taking combination ART in Botswana.

OBJECTIVES: To assess whether a single instance of low-level viraemia (LLV) is associated with the presence of drug resistance mutations (DRMs) and predicts subsequent virological failure (VF) in adults receiving ART in 30 communities participating in the Botswana Combination Prevention Project. METHODS: A total of 6078 HIV-1 C pol sequences were generated and analysed using the Stanford HIV drug resistance database. LLV was defined as plasma VL = 51-999 copies/mL and VF was defined as plasma VL ≥ 1000 copies/mL. RESULTS: Among 6078 people with HIV (PWH), 4443 (73%) were on ART for at least 6 months. Of the 332 persons on ART with VL > 50 copies/mL, 175 (4%) had VL ≥ 1000 copies/mL and 157 (4%) had LLV at baseline. The prevalence of any DRM was 57 (36%) and 78 (45%) in persons with LLV and VL ≥ 1000 copies/mL, respectively. Major DRMs were found in 31 (20%) with LLV and 53 (30%) with VL ≥ 1000 copies/mL (P = 0.04). Among the 135 PWH with at least one DRM, 17% had NRTI-, 35% NNRTI-, 6% PI- and 3% INSTI-associated mutations. Among the 3596 participants who were followed up, 1709 (48%) were on ART for ≥6 months at entry and had at least one subsequent VL measurement (median 29 months), 43 (3%) of whom had LLV. The OR of experiencing VF in persons with LLV at entry was 36-fold higher than in the virally suppressed group. CONCLUSIONS: A single LLV measurement while on ART strongly predicted the risk of future VF, suggesting the use of VL > 50 copies/mL as an indication for more intensive adherence support with more frequent VL monitoring.