Structural dynamics of Populus euphratica forests in different stages in the upper reaches of the Tarim River in China.

We selected four Populus euphratica Oliv. forest plots (100 m × 100 m) in the upper reaches of the Tarim River in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China. Each of the four forest plots was chosen to represent a different growth and death stage of P. euphratica forest: juvenile forest, mature forest, dying forest, and dead forest. In each plot, we measured the coordinates, DBH, height, and status of all P. euphratica individuals. We used (1) spatial pattern analysis to explore spatial distribution patterns and associations of live trees and dead trees, (2) a random mortality model to test whether the tree death was random or non-random, and (3) a generalized linear mixed-effect model (GLMM) to analyse factors related to tree survival (or death). In the juvenile plot, live trees were significantly aggregated at all scales (p < 0.05); while in the mature and dying plots, live trees were more aggregated at small scales and randomly distributed at larger scales. Live trees and dead trees showed a significantly positive association at all scales in the juvenile plot (p < 0.05). While in the mature and dying plots, live trees and dead trees only showed a significantly positive association at scales of 0-3 m (p < 0.05). There was significant density-dependent mortality in the juvenile plot; while mortality was spatially random at all scales in the mature and dying plots. The distance from the river showed significantly negative correlations with tree survival (p < 0.01). DBH and height had significantly positive associations with tree survival in the juvenile, mature, and dying plots (p < 0.05). In extreme drought, dying trees appeared to be shape-shifting into more shrub-like forms with clumps of root sprouts replacing the high canopies. The shift under extreme drought stress to more shrub-like forms of P. euphratica may extend their time to wait for a favourable change.

Effects of Supplementary Feeding on the Breeding Ecology of the Buff-Throated Partridge in a Tibetan Sacred Site, China.

Our goal was to document effects of year-round supplemental feeding on breeding ecology of the Buff-throated Partridge, Tetraophasis szechenyii, within a Tibetan sacred site. We evaluated effects of supplemental feeding used as religious/cultural practices which could potentially aid conservation of endangered phasianids. We compared fed breeding groups to neighboring nonfed groups. Fed groups initiated first clutches significantly earlier than nonfed groups. Earlier laying groups within fed and nonfed groups showed significantly lower hatching rates than later groups; however, fed groups showed significantly higher hatching rates than nonfed groups laying in the same period. Earlier laying increased opportunities to renest. All six fed groups with clutch failures renested compared to only one of five nonfed groups with clutch failures. Fed female breeders showed significantly greater investment in their young with larger clutches and larger eggs, which likely increased survivability of early hatchlings. We observed no predation on birds at feeding sites and recorded only four cases of predation on incubating females, which showed no detectable difference between fed and nonfed groups. Ground-nesting birds typically face high risks of predation. Ten of the 48 groups nested in trees, which occurs in few phasianid species. Tree nests showed significantly higher hatching rates compared to ground nests; however, we found no significant difference in tree nesting between fed and nonfed groups. This partridge is one of four gallinaceous species with cooperative breeding. Breeding groups with helpers had significantly greater reproductive success than single pairs, and fed female breeders with helpers laid bigger eggs than single pairs. Comparing annual reproductive output per group, fed groups not only produced significantly more independent young (≥ 150 days post-hatching), their young hatched significantly earlier, which likely have greater reproductive value over later hatched young of nonfed groups. Supplemental feeding year-round is likely what enabled the successes of the fed partridges.

Effectiveness of three turacos as seed dispersers in a tropical montane forest.

We studied the effectiveness of three species of turacos, the Great Blue Turaco, the Ruwenzori Turaco, and the Black-billed Turaco, as seed dispersers in a tropical forest in Rwanda. For each species of turaco, we examined two factors affecting the effectiveness of seed dispersal: (1) the proportion of ingested seeds dispersed away from the parent tree and (2) the distances seeds were dispersed. To estimate these measures of effectiveness, we systematically observed the foraging activities of focal birds over a 14-month period. We also fed six species of tree fruits to captive Ruwenzori Turacos to determine the gut retention times for seeds of various sizes. Based on these measures, we calculated the seed shadows generated by each turaco species for tree seeds with either long or short gut retention times. The gut retention time of seeds was not correlated with seed size, but was positively correlated with the time interval over which seeds were defecated. Seeds with a long gut retention time were not only dispersed farther away from the parent tree, but were also deposited over a longer time period and were thus likely to be dispersed over a greater variety of habitats. Of the three turacos, the Ruwenzori Turaco deposited the highest percentage of ingested seeds away from the parent tree because it had the shortest residence time in feeding trees. However, the Ruwenzori Turaco also dispersed seeds for the shortest distance, partly due to its short flight distances. The Great Blue Turaco on average dispersed seeds the farthest due to its long flight distance and long gut retention time. The Black-billed Turaco, which fed least frequently, deposited seeds more evenly among perching sites than did the other two species. All three species of turacos dispersed over 80% of ingested seeds away from the parent tree.

Competition in Umbra-Perca fish assemblages: experimental and field evidence.

One potentially important effect of interspecific competition in freshwater fish communities is to increase predation intensity from gape-limited piscivores by lowering growth rates of prey species. We investigated the operation and consequences of competition between central mudminnows (Umbra limi) and yearling yellow perch (Perca flavescens) in a system where size-limited predation on mudminnows by larger perch is a principle structuring mechanism. During laboratory experiments in which mudminnows foraged for patchily-presented food in the presence and absence of yearling perch, the food intake of mudminnows decreased at both the population and individual-fish levels when perch were present. Mudminnows were neither less active nor did they occupy lower-quality food patches in the presence of perch; exploitation competition, rather than interference or predator avoidance, appeared responsible for reduced feeding success. To assess effects of competition in the field, we examined size distributions and condition factors of yearling mudminnows and perch in small Wisconsin lakes having mudminnow-only and mudminnow-perch assemblages. Yearling mudminnows were smaller and in poorer condition in an assemblage composed (by mass) of 45% yearling perch than in two mudminnow-only assemblages. Conversely, yearling perch were larger and in better condition when the mudminnow-perch assemblage contained only 45% perch then when it contained 92% perch. Our experimental and field results indicated that an asymmetrical competitive relationship could contribute directly to the interspecific population dominance of perch over mudminnows in Umbra-Perca assemblages through reduced food intake, growth, and condition of mudminnows, and indirectly through increased vulnerability of mudminnows to size-limited predation.

The effect of accessibility on rates of fruit removal from tropical shrubs: An experimental study.

In a series of field experiments using Costa Rican rain forest plants, we examined the effect of accessibility on fruit removal rates. We compared the effects of fruit placement in terminal and axillary infructescences on diurnal and nocturnal removal rates, visitation rates, and incidence of fruit damage. We used three different species of berries (Phytolacca rivinoides, Psychotria brachiata, and Psychotria pitteri) and worked in three different habitats (fallow fields, treefall gaps, and forest understory) and in two different seasons (July-September, a season of fruit abundance and December-January, a season of fruit scarcity.)We found that in oldfields especially, diurnal removal rates by birds were significantly greater from axillary than from terminal infructescences. Nocturnal removal from axillary infructescences-presumably by rodents-is also occassionally significant. From these data, from observations on climbing ability and fruit use in captive rodents, and from reports in the literature, we suggest that rodents are significant sources of fruit and seed loss in tropical shrubs. We hypothesize that placement of the infructescence on the plant affects fruit removal by both seed-dispersing birds and by the less agile, often seed-destroying rodents. The balance between the two rates is an important component of a plant's dispersal success.Diurnal fruit removal rates were higher during the season of fruit scarcity than during the season of fruit abundance and higher in old fields than in forest gaps or understory. Fruit damage rates-probably due to orthopterans-were slightly greater in gaps and understory than in old fields.