Accuracy of Influenza ICD-10 Diagnosis Codes in Identifying Influenza Illness in Children.

Importance: Studies of influenza in children commonly rely on coded diagnoses, yet the ability of International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision codes to identify influenza in the emergency department (ED) and hospital is highly variable. The accuracy of newer International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes to identify influenza in children is unknown. Objective: To determine the accuracy of ICD-10 influenza discharge diagnosis codes in the pediatric ED and inpatient settings. Design, Setting, and Participants: Children younger than 18 years presenting to the ED or inpatient settings with fever and/or respiratory symptoms at 7 US pediatric medical centers affiliated with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-sponsored New Vaccine Surveillance Network from December 1, 2016, to March 31, 2020, were included in this cohort study. Nasal and/or throat swabs were collected for research molecular testing for influenza, regardless of clinical testing. Data, including ICD-10 discharge diagnoses and clinical testing for influenza, were obtained through medical record review. Data analysis was performed in August 2023. Main Outcomes and Measures: The accuracy of ICD-10-coded discharge diagnoses was characterized using molecular clinical or research laboratory test results as reference. Measures included sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV). Estimates were stratified by setting (ED vs inpatient) and age (0-1, 2-4, and 5-17 years). Results: A total of 16 867 children in the ED (median [IQR] age, 2.0 [0.0-4.0] years; 9304 boys [55.2%]) and 17 060 inpatients (median [IQR] age, 1.0 [0.0-4.0] years; 9798 boys [57.4%]) were included. In the ED, ICD-10 influenza diagnoses were highly specific (98.0%; 95% CI, 97.8%-98.3%), with high PPV (88.6%; 95% CI, 88.0%-89.2%) and high NPV (85.9%; 95% CI, 85.3%-86.6%), but sensitivity was lower (48.6%; 95% CI, 47.6%-49.5%). Among inpatients, specificity was 98.2% (95% CI, 98.0%-98.5%), PPV was 82.8% (95% CI, 82.1%-83.5%), sensitivity was 70.7% (95% CI, 69.8%-71.5%), and NPV was 96.5% (95% CI, 96.2%-96.9%). Accuracy of ICD-10 diagnoses varied by patient age, influenza season definition, time between disease onset and testing, and clinical setting. Conclusions and Relevance: In this large cohort study, influenza ICD-10 discharge diagnoses were highly specific but moderately sensitive in identifying laboratory-confirmed influenza; the accuracy of influenza diagnoses varied by clinical and epidemiological factors. In the ED and inpatient settings, an ICD-10 diagnosis likely represents a true-positive influenza case.

Medical Costs of Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Associated Hospitalizations and Emergency Department Visits in Children Aged Younger Than 5 Years: Observational Findings from the New Vaccine Surveillance Network, 2016-2019.

OBJECTIVE: To assess medical costs of hospitalizations and emergency department (ED) care associated with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) disease in children enrolled in the New Vaccine Surveillance Network. STUDY DESIGN: We used accounting and prospective surveillance data from 6 pediatric health systems to assess direct medical costs from laboratory-confirmed RSV-associated hospitalizations (n = 2007) and ED visits (n = 1267) from 2016 through 2019 among children aged <5 years. We grouped costs into categories relevant to clinical care and administrative billing practices. We examined RSV-associated medical costs by care setting using descriptive and bivariate analyses. We assessed associations between known RSV risk factors and hospitalization costs and length of stay using χ2 tests of association. RESULTS: The median cost was $7100 (IQR $4006-$13 355) per hospitalized child and $503 (IQR $387-$930) per ED visit. Eighty percent (n = 2628) of our final sample were children aged younger than 2 years. Fewer weeks' gestational age was associated with greater median costs in hospitalized children (P < .001, ≥37 weeks of gestational age: $6840 [$3905-$12 450]; 29-36 weeks of gestational age: $7721 [$4362-$15 274]; <29 weeks of gestational age: $9131 [$4518-$19 924]). Infants born full term accounted for 70% of the total expenditures in our sample. Almost three quarters of the health care dollars spent originated in children younger than 12 months of age, the primary age group targeted by recommended RSV prophylactics. CONCLUSIONS: Reducing the cost burden for RSV-associated medical care in young children will require prevention of RSV in all young children, not just high-risk infants. Newly available maternal vaccine and immunoprophylaxis products could substantially reduce RSV-associated medical costs.

Early Estimate of Nirsevimab Effectiveness for Prevention of Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Associated Hospitalization Among Infants Entering Their First Respiratory Syncytial Virus Season - New Vaccine Surveillance Network, October 2023-February 2024.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of hospitalization among infants in the United States. In August 2023, CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended nirsevimab, a long-acting monoclonal antibody, for infants aged <8 months to protect against RSV-associated lower respiratory tract infection during their first RSV season and for children aged 8-19 months at increased risk for severe RSV disease. In phase 3 clinical trials, nirsevimab efficacy against RSV-associated lower respiratory tract infection with hospitalization was 81% (95% CI = 62%-90%) through 150 days after receipt; post-introduction effectiveness has not been assessed in the United States. In this analysis, the New Vaccine Surveillance Network evaluated nirsevimab effectiveness against RSV-associated hospitalization among infants in their first RSV season during October 1, 2023-February 29, 2024. Among 699 infants hospitalized with acute respiratory illness, 59 (8%) received nirsevimab ≥7 days before symptom onset. Nirsevimab effectiveness was 90% (95% CI = 75%-96%) against RSV-associated hospitalization with a median time from receipt to symptom onset of 45 days (IQR = 19-76 days). The number of infants who received nirsevimab was too low to stratify by duration from receipt; however, nirsevimab effectiveness is expected to decrease with increasing time after receipt because of antibody decay. Although nirsevimab uptake and the interval from receipt of nirsevimab were limited in this analysis, this early estimate supports the current nirsevimab recommendation for the prevention of severe RSV disease in infants. Infants should be protected by maternal RSV vaccination or infant receipt of nirsevimab.

Interim Estimates of 2023-24 Seasonal Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness - United States.

In the United States, annual influenza vaccination is recommended for all persons aged ≥6 months. Using data from four vaccine effectiveness (VE) networks during the 2023-24 influenza season, interim influenza VE was estimated among patients aged ≥6 months with acute respiratory illness-associated medical encounters using a test-negative case-control study design. Among children and adolescents aged 6 months-17 years, VE against influenza-associated outpatient visits ranged from 59% to 67% and against influenza-associated hospitalization ranged from 52% to 61%. Among adults aged ≥18 years, VE against influenza-associated outpatient visits ranged from 33% to 49% and against hospitalization from 41% to 44%. VE against influenza A ranged from 46% to 59% for children and adolescents and from 27% to 46% for adults across settings. VE against influenza B ranged from 64% to 89% for pediatric patients in outpatient settings and from 60% to 78% for all adults across settings. These findings demonstrate that the 2023-24 seasonal influenza vaccine is effective at reducing the risk for medically attended influenza virus infection. CDC recommends that all persons aged ≥6 months who have not yet been vaccinated this season get vaccinated while influenza circulates locally.

SARS-CoV-2 Epidemiology and COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine Effectiveness Among Infants and Children Aged 6 Months-4 Years - New Vaccine Surveillance Network, United States, July 2022-September 2023.

SARS-CoV-2 infection in young children is often mild or asymptomatic; however, some children are at risk for severe disease. Data describing the protective effectiveness of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines against COVID-19-associated emergency department (ED) visits and hospitalization in this population are limited. Data from the New Vaccine Surveillance Network, a prospective population-based surveillance system, were used to estimate vaccine effectiveness using a test-negative, case-control design and describe the epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in infants and children aged 6 months-4 years during July 1, 2022-September 30, 2023. Among 7,434 children included, 5% received a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result, and 95% received a negative test result; 86% were unvaccinated, 4% had received 1 dose of any vaccine product, and 10% had received ≥2 doses. When compared with receipt of no vaccines among children, receipt of ≥2 COVID-19 mRNA vaccine doses was 40% effective (95% CI = 8%-60%) in preventing ED visits and hospitalization. These findings support existing recommendations for COVID-19 vaccination of young children to reduce COVID-19-associated ED visits and hospitalization.

Changes in the Incidence of Invasive Bacterial Disease During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States, 2014-2020.

BACKGROUND: Descriptions of changes in invasive bacterial disease (IBD) epidemiology during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in the United States are limited. METHODS: We investigated changes in the incidence of IBD due to Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, group A Streptococcus (GAS), and group B Streptococcus (GBS). We defined the COVID-19 pandemic period as 1 March to 31 December 2020. We compared observed IBD incidences during the pandemic to expected incidences, consistent with January 2014 to February 2020 trends. We conducted secondary analysis of a health care database to assess changes in testing by blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) culture during the pandemic. RESULTS: Compared with expected incidences, the observed incidences of IBD due to S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, GAS, and GBS were 58%, 60%, 28%, and 12% lower during the pandemic period of 2020, respectively. Declines from expected incidences corresponded closely with implementation of COVID-19-associated nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs). Significant declines were observed across all age and race groups, and surveillance sites for S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae. Blood and CSF culture testing rates during the pandemic were comparable to previous years. CONCLUSIONS: NPIs likely contributed to the decline in IBD incidence in the United States in 2020; observed declines were unlikely to be driven by reductions in testing.

Increase in Acute Respiratory Illnesses Among Children and Adolescents Associated with Rhinoviruses and Enteroviruses, Including Enterovirus D68 - United States, July-September 2022.

Increases in severe respiratory illness and acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) among children and adolescents resulting from enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) infections occurred biennially in the United States during 2014, 2016, and 2018, primarily in late summer and fall. Although EV-D68 annual trends are not fully understood, EV-D68 levels were lower than expected in 2020, potentially because of implementation of COVID-19 mitigation measures (e.g., wearing face masks, enhanced hand hygiene, and physical distancing) (1). In August 2022, clinicians in several geographic areas notified CDC of an increase in hospitalizations of pediatric patients with severe respiratory illness and positive rhinovirus/enterovirus (RV/EV) test results.* Surveillance data were analyzed from multiple national data sources to characterize reported trends in acute respiratory illness (ARI), asthma/reactive airway disease (RAD) exacerbations, and the percentage of positive RV/EV and EV-D68 test results during 2022 compared with previous years. These data demonstrated an increase in emergency department (ED) visits by children and adolescents with ARI and asthma/RAD in late summer 2022. The percentage of positive RV/EV test results in national laboratory-based surveillance and the percentage of positive EV-D68 test results in pediatric sentinel surveillance also increased during this time. Previous increases in EV-D68 respiratory illness have led to substantial resource demands in some hospitals and have also coincided with increases in cases of AFM (2), a rare but serious neurologic disease affecting the spinal cord. Therefore, clinicians should consider AFM in patients with acute flaccid limb weakness, especially after respiratory illness or fever, and ensure prompt hospitalization and referral to specialty care for such cases. Clinicians should also test for poliovirus infection in patients suspected of having AFM because of the clinical similarity to acute flaccid paralysis caused by poliovirus. Ongoing surveillance for EV-D68 is critical to ensuring preparedness for possible future increases in ARI and AFM.

COVID-19-Associated Hospitalizations Among Vaccinated and Unvaccinated Adults 18 Years or Older in 13 US States, January 2021 to April 2022.

Importance: Understanding risk factors for hospitalization in vaccinated persons and the association of COVID-19 vaccines with hospitalization rates is critical for public health efforts to control COVID-19. Objective: To determine characteristics of COVID-19-associated hospitalizations among vaccinated persons and comparative hospitalization rates in unvaccinated and vaccinated persons. Design, Setting, and Participants: From January 1, 2021, to April 30, 2022, patients 18 years or older with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection were identified from more than 250 hospitals in the population-based COVID-19-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network. State immunization information system data were linked to cases, and the vaccination coverage data of the defined catchment population were used to compare hospitalization rates in unvaccinated and vaccinated individuals. Vaccinated and unvaccinated patient characteristics were compared in a representative sample with detailed medical record review; unweighted case counts and weighted percentages were calculated. Exposures: Laboratory-confirmed COVID-19-associated hospitalization, defined as a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result within 14 days before or during hospitalization. Main Outcomes and Measures: COVID-19-associated hospitalization rates among vaccinated vs unvaccinated persons and factors associated with COVID-19-associated hospitalization in vaccinated persons were assessed. Results: Using representative data from 192 509 hospitalizations (see Table 1 for demographic information), monthly COVID-19-associated hospitalization rates ranged from 3.5 times to 17.7 times higher in unvaccinated persons than vaccinated persons regardless of booster dose status. From January to April 2022, when the Omicron variant was predominant, hospitalization rates were 10.5 times higher in unvaccinated persons and 2.5 times higher in vaccinated persons with no booster dose, respectively, compared with those who had received a booster dose. Among sampled cases, vaccinated hospitalized patients with COVID-19 were older than those who were unvaccinated (median [IQR] age, 70 [58-80] years vs 58 [46-70] years, respectively; P < .001) and more likely to have 3 or more underlying medical conditions (1926 [77.8%] vs 4124 [51.6%], respectively; P < .001). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study of US adults hospitalized with COVID-19, unvaccinated adults were more likely to be hospitalized compared with vaccinated adults; hospitalization rates were lowest in those who had received a booster dose. Hospitalized vaccinated persons were older and more likely to have 3 or more underlying medical conditions and be long-term care facility residents compared with hospitalized unvaccinated persons. The study results suggest that clinicians and public health practitioners should continue to promote vaccination with all recommended doses for eligible persons.

Pediatric Brain Abscesses, Epidural Empyemas, and Subdural Empyemas Associated with Streptococcus Species - United States, January 2016-August 2022.

In May 2022, CDC learned of three children in California hospitalized concurrently for brain abscess, epidural empyema, or subdural empyema caused by Streptococcus intermedius. Discussions with clinicians in multiple states raised concerns about a possible increase in pediatric intracranial infections, particularly those caused by Streptococcus bacteria, during the past year and the possible contributing role of SARS-CoV-2 infection (1). Pediatric bacterial brain abscesses, epidural empyemas, and subdural empyemas, rare complications of respiratory infections and sinusitis, are often caused by Streptococcus species but might also be polymicrobial or caused by other genera, such as Staphylococcus. On June 9, CDC asked clinicians and health departments to report possible cases of these conditions and to submit clinical specimens for laboratory testing. Through collaboration with the Children's Hospital Association (CHA), CDC analyzed nationally representative pediatric hospitalizations for brain abscess and empyema. Hospitalizations declined after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, increased during summer 2021 to a peak in March 2022, and then declined to baseline levels. After the increase in summer 2021, no evidence of higher levels of intensive care unit (ICU) admission, mortality, genetic relatedness of isolates from different patients, or increased antimicrobial resistance of isolates was observed. The peak in cases in March 2022 was consistent with historical seasonal fluctuations observed since 2016. Based on these findings, initial reports from clinicians (1) are consistent with seasonal fluctuations and a redistribution of cases over time during the COVID-19 pandemic. CDC will continue to work with investigation partners to monitor ongoing trends in pediatric brain abscesses and empyemas.

Effectiveness of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) mRNA Vaccines Against Infection During an Outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Beta (B.1.351) Variant in a Skilled Nursing Facility: Virginia, March-April 2021.

In April 2021, we assessed mRNA vaccine effectiveness (VE) in the context of a COVID-19 outbreak in a skilled nursing facility. Among 28 cases, genomic sequencing was performed on 4 specimens on 4 different patients, and all were classified by sequence analysis as the Beta (B.1.351) variant. Adjusted VE among residents was 65% (95% confidence interval: 25-84%). These findings underscore the importance of vaccination for prevention of COVID-19 in skilled nursing facilities.

Effectiveness of COVID-19 Vaccines in Preventing Hospitalization Among Adults Aged ≥65 Years - COVID-NET, 13 States, February-April 2021.

Clinical trials of COVID-19 vaccines currently authorized for emergency use in the United States (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, and Janssen [Johnson & Johnson]) indicate that these vaccines have high efficacy against symptomatic disease, including moderate to severe illness (1-3). In addition to clinical trials, real-world assessments of COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness are critical in guiding vaccine policy and building vaccine confidence, particularly among populations at higher risk for more severe illness from COVID-19, including older adults. To determine the real-world effectiveness of the three currently authorized COVID-19 vaccines among persons aged ≥65 years during February 1-April 30, 2021, data on 7,280 patients from the COVID-19-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network (COVID-NET) were analyzed with vaccination coverage data from state immunization information systems (IISs) for the COVID-NET catchment area (approximately 4.8 million persons). Among adults aged 65-74 years, effectiveness of full vaccination in preventing COVID-19-associated hospitalization was 96% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 94%-98%) for Pfizer-BioNTech, 96% (95% CI = 95%-98%) for Moderna, and 84% (95% CI = 64%-93%) for Janssen vaccine products. Effectiveness of full vaccination in preventing COVID-19-associated hospitalization among adults aged ≥75 years was 91% (95% CI = 87%-94%) for Pfizer-BioNTech, 96% (95% CI = 93%-98%) for Moderna, and 85% (95% CI = 72%-92%) for Janssen vaccine products. COVID-19 vaccines currently authorized in the United States are highly effective in preventing COVID-19-associated hospitalizations in older adults. In light of real-world data demonstrating high effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines among older adults, efforts to increase vaccination coverage in this age group are critical to reducing the risk for COVID-19-related hospitalization.

Acute Transverse Myelitis Caused by Echovirus 11 in a Pediatric Patient: Case Report and Review of the Current Literature.

A 12-year-old boy presented with acute flaccid weakness of the right upper extremity and was found to have acute flaccid myelitis with transverse myelitis involving the cervical cord (C1-T1). An interdisciplinary team-based approach was undertaken, including input from a generalist, an infectious diseases physician, and a pediatric neurologist. Consultation was sought from the Minnesota Department of Health to investigate for a potential etiology and source of the responsible infection. Evaluation for an infectious etiology demonstrated infection with human echovirus 11. The patient recovered with some disability. Echovirus 11 is among the more common etiologies of acute flaccid myelitis and should be considered in the differential diagnosis of this increasingly recognized pediatric infection.