Application of zeolites for biological treatment processes of solid wastes and wastewaters - A review.

This review reports the use of zeolites in biological processes such as anaerobic digestion, nitrification, denitrification and composting, review that has not been proposed yet. It was found that aerobic processes (activated sludge, nitrification, Anammox) use zeolites as ion-exchanger and biomass carriers in order to improve the seattlebility, the biomass growth on zeolite surface and the phosphorous removal. In the case of anaerobic digestion and composting, zeolites are mainly used with the aim of retaining inhibitors such as ammonia and heavy metals through ion-exchange. The inclusion of zeolite effect on mathematical models applied in biological processes is still an area that should be improved, including also the life cycle analysis of the processes that include zeolites. At the same time, the application of zeolites at industrial or full-scale is still very scarce in anaerobic digestion, being more common in nitrogen removal processes.

Total ammoniacal nitrogen biofiltration of wastewaters from aquaculture systems using Macrocystis spp.

The results of total ammoniacal nitrogen (NH(3) + NH(4) (+)) removal in aquaculture systems using two experimental sets, aquatic seedlings produced in laboratory controlled conditions and wild seaweed (Macrocystis spp.) in reproductive state, are shown in this work. Biofiltration assays were carried out using a load of total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) of 1 mg/L. Absorption rates were measured taking into account a previous surface characterization, which gave values of 44 ± 14 cm(2)/g and 18 ± 6 cm(2)/g for aquatic seedlings and wild algae, respectively. The following parameters were measured during the experimental runs: temperature, pH, O(2), illuminance or light intensity, salinity and total solids. TAN removals of 61% and 70% were achieved for the seedlings and Macrocystis spp., respectively, after 17 h of treatment. The TAN absorption results were expressed as a function of surface and mass achieving the following values: 3.0 nmol N cm(-2) h(-1) and 111 nmol N g(-1) h(-1) for the seedlings, and 6.9 nmol N cm(-2) h(-1) and 122.4 nmol N g(-1) h(-1) for the macroalgae. In the light of these biofiltration processes, the initial TAN concentration decreased by 90% for the seedlings and wild algae over approximately 110 and 41 h, respectively. In addition, TAN removals achieved with Macrocystis spp. were always higher than those obtained with aquatic seedlings for the same operating periods.

Influence of the food to microorganisms (F/M) ratio and temperature on batch anaerobic digestion processes with and without zeolite addition.

The main objective of this work was to evaluate the influence of the food to microorganisms (F/M) ratio and temperature on batch anaerobic digestion processes carried out with and without zeolite addition as a microbial carrier. Three laboratory-scale experimental runs were conducted using a synthetic substrate with a COD:N:P ratio of 500:5:1. The first run (I) was conducted at a constant temperature of 27°C, increasing the F/M ratio from 0.21 to 0.40 (g COD/g VSS). During the second run (II) the temperature and the F/M ratio increased from 27°C to 37°C and from 0.21 to 0.40, respectively. Finally, in the third experimental run (III) the F/M ratio achieved high values (1.92 and 1.30) either by varying the substrate concentration at a constant biomass concentration or by increasing the biomass concentration at a constant substrate concentration. Higher biomass growth rate, COD removal and methane production were found in the reactors with zeolite, especially at the highest F/M assayed during the first run. The highest ammonium removals were also achieved at the highest F/M ratio (0.40) in the reactors with zeolite. Within the range studied (25°C-37°C) in the reactors with zeolite operating at 37°C, the second run demonstrated the low influence of temperature on substrate consumption and ammonia removal, with 93% and 70% of COD and ammonia removal efficiencies, respectively. The third run corroborated the results previously obtained and fit the experimental results to simple kinetic models, the Monod model being the most adequate for predicting the behavior of the systems studied. The maximum specific microorganism growth rate (µ(max)) values for the reactors with zeolite were almost twice as high as those obtained for the reactors without zeolite for similar F/M ratios.

Evaluation of natural zeolite as microorganism support medium in nitrifying batch reactors: influence of zeolite particle size.

An evaluation of natural zeolite as a microorganism carrier in nitrifying reactors operated in batch mode was carried out. Specifically, the influence of zeolite particle sizes of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mm in diameter on microorganism adherence to zeolite, ammonium adsorption capacity and the identification of microbial populations were assessed. The greatest amount of total biomass adhered was observed for a zeolite particle size of 1 mm (0.289 g) which was achieved on the 12th day of operation. The highest ammonium adsorption capacity was observed for a zeolite particle size of 0.5 mm, which was 64% and 31% higher than that observed for particle sizes of 1.0 and 2.0 mm, respectively. The maximum de-sorption values were also found for a zeolite particle size of 0.5 mm, although when equilibrium was reached the ammonium concentrations were similar to those observed for a zeolite particle size of 1.0 mm. It was also found that the experimental data on ammonium adsorption fitted very well to the Freundlich isotherm for the three particle sizes studied. Finally, the nitrifying reactors showed similar microbial populations independently of the particle size used as microorganism carrier. The dominant bacterial community was Gammaproteobacteria making up 80% of the total population found. Betaproteobacteria were also identified and made up 12% approx. of the total population. Ammonium Oxidant Betaproteobacteria and Nitrobacter were also detected.

Influence of heavy metal supplementation on specific methanogenic activity and microbial communities detected in batch anaerobic digesters.

Natural and modified zeolites (0.5-1.0 mm) from the Tasajera deposit in Cuba were used to enhance the anaerobic digestion process of synthetic substrates. Natural zeolites were modified by ionic exchange and by adsorption with nickel, cobalt and magnesium. The experiments were carried out by using an inoculum from a full-scale anaerobic reactor treating winery wastewater. Modified natural zeolites not only enhanced the anaerobic digestion process, but also increased the specific methanogenic activity (SMA) of the sludges. The textural and chemical surface characteristics of the modified zeolites were related to the process performance, volatile fatty acid (VFA) production and microbial communities found in the digesters. For the selected dose of modified zeolites [0.05 g/g of volatile suspended solids (VSS)], the lowest concentration was found for cobalt followed by nickel and magnesium. Based on the analyses of anaerobic biofilms, the heavy metal incorporated into the zeolite was shown to have a great influence on the predominance of species. For example, the presence of nickel and cobalt favoured Methanosaeta, while at the same dose magnesic zeolite stimulated the presence of Methanosarcina and sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). In digesters with modified zeolites and metal supplementations the values of SMA were higher than those obtained in the control and natural zeolite digesters.

The impact of ammonia nitrogen concentration and zeolite addition on the specific methanogenic activity of granular and flocculent anaerobic sludges.

This work presents the effect of ammonia nitrogen concentration and zeolite addition on the specific methanogenic activity (SMA) of different anaerobic sludges with various physical structures (granular and flocculent), operating in batch conditions. Piggery, malting production and urban sludges derived from full-scale anaerobic reactors were tested in the experiment as the source of inoculum in batch digesters. It was found that piggery sludge was the most affected by the increase of ammonia nitrogen concentration while malting producing and municipal sludges were less affected. In general, the addition of zeolite at doses in the range of 0.01-0.1 g/g VSS reduced the inhibitory effect of N-NH(4)(+) for piggery sludge (P.S.). For this sludge, the propionic:acetic ratio increased when the concentration of N-NH(4)(+) increased, indicating that methanogenesis was affected. Finally, a study of the microbial population involved in this study for P.S. by using 16S rRNA based molecular techniques revealed a presence of microorganisms following the order: Methanococcaceae > Methanosarcina > Methanosaeta.

Kinetic evaluation and performance of pilot-scale fed-batch aerated lagoons treating winery wastewaters.

Winery wastewater was treated in two pilot-scale aerated lagoons operating in fed-batch mode. A first lagoon of 27.2m(3) working volume was gradually filled with wastewater with an average COD content of 8700mg/L. Given that with the flow-rate used (790L/day) this first lagoon completed its working volume after 30days of starting, part of the liquid contained in the first lagoon was transferred to another adjacent second lagoon of 10.8m(3) working volume. Therefore, the experiment continued in the second lagoon for another additional 24days using an influent with a COD content of 18,700mg/L at a flow-rate of 170L/day. After the 21st day, a maximum COD removal efficiency of 91% was achieved, and this value was maintained virtually constant until the end of the experiments. A mathematical model based on three differential equations solved simultaneously allowed the kinetic parameters of the system to be obtained.

Performance evaluation of a two-phase anaerobic digestion process of synthetic domestic wastewater at ambient temperature.

A two-phase anaerobic digestion process of synthetic domestic wastewater was studied at ambient temperature in mild to cold climates. The hydrolytic stage was carried out in a continuous stirred tank reactor with an effective volume of 1.2 L. The hydrolytic reactor operated at hydraulic retention times (HRTs) in the range of 1.3 to 2.7 h, which allowed for optimum HRT to be obtained in order to achieve a maximum amount of soluble COD. For the methanogenic stage, an up-flow anaerobic filter with a volume of 1.35 L and corrugated plastic rings as biomass immobilization support were used. During the investigation, the ambient temperature ranged between 21 degrees C and 24 degrees C. Synthetic domestic wastewater with a COD of 700 mg/L was used as substrate. The study was performed at total organic loading rates (OLR(T)) of 2.0-4.3 g COD/L. d, with a global HRT (including both hydrolytic and methanogenic stages) of 2.8-5.8 hours. A maximum percentage of organic matter removed of 88% was achieved at a global HRT of 5.8 hours. Under these operating conditions, the production of biogas was 97% higher than that obtained in the one-phase anaerobic digestion process. Additionally, the kinetics involved in the hydrolytic stage was determined using the Contois kinetic model, which adequately predicted the experimental results.

Kinetics of anaerobic degradation of screened dairy manure by upflow fixed bed digesters: effect of natural zeolite addition.

The effect of the hydraulic retention time (HRT) on the performance of two up-flow anaerobic fixed bed digesters (UFAFBDs) packed with waste tire rubber (D1) and waste tire rubber and zeolite (D2) as micro-organism immobilization supports was studied. It was found that a first-order kinetic model described well the experimental results obtained. The kinetic constants for COD, BOD5, total solids (TS) and volatile solids (VS) removal were determined to be higher in digester D2 than in digester D1 or control. Specifically, they were 0.28 +/- 0.01, 0.32 +/- 0.02, 0.16 +/- 0.01 and 0.24 +/- 0.01 d(- 1) respectively for D1 and 0.33 +/- 0.02, 0.40 +/- 0.02, 0.21 +/- 0.01 and 0.28 +/- 0.01 d(- 1) respectively for D2. This was significant at the 95% confidence level. In addition, the first-order model was also adequate for assessing the effect of the HRT on the removal efficiency and methane production. Maximum methane yield and the first-order constant for methane production were determined and the results obtained were comparable with those obtained by other authors but operating at higher HRTs. Maximum methane yields and the kinetic constant for methane production were 11.1% and 29.4% higher in digester D2 than in D1.

Treatment of wastewater from red and tropical fruit wine production by zeolite anaerobic fluidized bed reactor.

A study of the anaerobic treatment of wastewaters derived from red (RWWW) and tropical fruit wine (TFWWW) production was carried out in four laboratory-scale fluidized bed reactors with natural zeolite as bacterial support. These reactors operated at mesophilic temperature (35 degrees C). Reactors R1 and R2 contained Chilean natural zeolite, while reactors R3 and R4 used Cuban natural zeolite as microorganism support. In addition, reactors R1 and R3 processed RWWW, while reactors R2 and R4 used TFWWW as substrate. The biomass concentration attached to zeolites in the four reactors studied was found to be in the range of 44-46 g volatile solids (VS)/L after 90 days of operation time. Both types of zeolites can be used indistinctly in the fluidized bed reactors achieving more than 80%-86% chemical oxygen demand (COD) removals for organic loading rates (OLR) of up to at least 20 g COD/L d. pH values remained within the optimal range for anaerobic microorganisms for OLR values of up to 20 and 22 g COD/L d for RWWW and TFWWW, respectively. Toxicity and inhibition levels were observed at an OLR of 20 g COD/L d in reactors R1 and R3 while processing RWWW, whereas the aforementioned inhibitory phenomena were not observed at an OLR of 24 g COD/L d in R2 and R4, treating TFWWW as a consequence of the lower phenolic compound content present in this substrate. The volatile fatty acid (VFA) levels were always lower in reactors processing TFWWW (R2 and R4) and these values (< 400 mg/L, as acetic acid) were lower than the suggested limits for digester failure. The specific methanogenic activity (SMA) was twice as high in reactors R2 and R4 than in R1 and R3 after 120 days of operation when all reactors operated at an OLR of 20 g COD/L d.

Anaerobic fluidized bed reactor application to tropical fruit wine effluent.

The influence of the organic loading rate (OLR), the fluidization level (FL) and the particle diameter of natural zeolite used as support (D(p)), was evaluated at a laboratory scale anaerobic fluidized bed reactor (AFBR), treating tropical fruit wine effluent (vinasse). The experiment was carried out at an OLR from 2-5 kg COD/m3 d, FL of 20 and 40% and D(p) from 0.25 to 0.80 mm. It was demonstrated that OLR and FL had a slight influence on chemical oxygen demand removal and strong influence on the methane production rate. The COD removal was slightly higher for the higher particle diameter used. Additionally using the scanning electron microscope (SEM), it was observed that natural zeolites have excellent physical characteristics as a support medium in AFBR.

Relationship between aggressive behavior, depressed mood, and other disruptive behavior in Puerto Rican children diagnosed with attention deficit and disruptive behaviors disorders

OBJECTIVE: The present study was directed at examining the relationship between aggressive behavior, depressed mood, other disruptive behaviors in children diagnosed with ADHD or ODD disorders in Puerto Rico. METHODS: One hundred seventy six (176) students (127 males and 49 females) from 12 public elementary schools in the San Juan Area of Puerto Rico participated in the study. The participants were divided into a group of ADHD children who exhibited aggressive behavior, a group of ADHD children that did not show aggressive behavior, and a normal group. Several self-report measures were administered to the children and teachers. RESULTS: Our results indicate that the best predictor of aggressive behavior was the hyperactivity and impulsiveness for both ADHD males and females. In addition, depressed mood in both males and females was also a significant predictor of aggressive behavior in Puerto Rican ADHD children. However, in females the social problems variable was also found to be a significant grouping variable. CONCLUSION: The first conclusion of these results is that inattentiveness does not appear to be a relevant factor in ADHD Puerto Rican children who exhibit aggressive behavior. Second, we need to be cognizant to the fact that Puerto Rican ADHD children do exhibit high co-morbidity for aggressive behavior, depressed mood, and social problems. Thus, our diagnostic and treatment approaches with ADHD Puerto Rican children need to include an assessment of the social environment of the child and its effect on his emotional state, in particular his or her mood.

Solid mining residues from ni extraction applied as nutrients supplier to anaerobic process: optimal dose approach through Taguchi's methodology.

The use of solid mining residues (Cola) which contain a certain amount of Ni, Fe and Co, to stimulate anaerobic processes was evaluated. The effect over methane production and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency was analysed. The studies were carried out in discontinuous reactors at lab scale under mesophilic conditions until exhausted. 0, 3, 5 and 7 mg Cola l(-1) doses were applied to synthetic wastewater. Volatile fatty acids (VFA) and sucrose were used as substrate, sulphur and nitrogen concentration, being the noise variable. Cola addition at dose around 5 mg I(-1), turned out to be stimulating for the anaerobic process. It was the factor that most influenced on methane production rate together with VFA and high content of volatile suspended solids. In the case of methane yield, pH was the control factor of strongest influence. Higher values of COD removal efficiency were obtained when the reactors were operated with sucrose at relatively low pH and at the smallest concentration of nitrogen and sulphur. Solid residues dose and the type of substrate were the factors that had most influence on COD removal efficiency.

Effect of natural and modified zeolite addition on anaerobic digestion of piggery waste.

The effect of natural and modified zeolites on the anaerobic degradation of acetate and methanol was evaluated by the determination of specific methane productivity (SMP) in batch minidigesters of 50 mL at doses of 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1 g of zeolite/g of VSS. The effects of the different zeolite concentrations were determined by the results of the SMP. A kinetic characterization with data of accumulated methane gas volume was also carried out. In the second phase of the study, the effects of natural and nickel zeolite concentrations were tested with piggery waste in laboratory scale digesters of 2.5 L operating at semi continuous mode, by increasing the organic load applied from 0.2 to 22.0 g TCOD/d corresponding to organic loading rates (OLR) of 0.1-8.8 g TCOD/l x d. A greater effect of modified zeolite on SMP was observed, with an increase of 8.5 times with magnesium zeolite, 4.4 times with cobalt zeolite and 2.8 times with nickel zeolite. Two phases were defined in the kinetic study and an increase of more than 2 times the apparent constant of digesters with modified zeolites was observed in the second phase when compared to unmodified natural zeolite. Modified natural zeolite addition to digesters can allow an increase in the potential biodegradability of piggery waste solid fraction and/or a considerable reduction of digestion volume.

Use of activated carbon and natural zeolite as support materials, in an anaerobic fluidised bed reactor, for vinasse treatment.

In Cuba, the alcohol distillation process from cane sugar molasses, produces a final waste (vinasse), with an enormous polluting potential and a high sulfate content. Applying the anaerobic technology, most of the biodegradable organic matter can turn into biogas, rich in methane but with concentrations of sulfide above 1%. The present work develops two experiences with anaerobic fluidized bed reactors (AFBR) using both Cuban raw material, activated carbon and natural zeolite, as support media, with the purpose of obtaining high organic matter removal rates and keeping sulfide and ammonium concentrations in the permissible ranges. The reactors were operated during 120 days, achieving an organic loading rate of 10 kg COD/m3 day, with COD removal above 70%, and a methane production of 2 L/d. The activated carbon and natural zeolite used support materials in anaerobic fluidized bed reactors, and showed good results of distillery waste removal.

Comportamiento cinético y ecuaciones que describen el proceso anaerobio modificado de alta velocidad (PAMAV)

Con vistas a resolver un problema concreto que existe en Cuba an las plantas de tratamiento de residuales porcinos (PTRP) se desarrolló un sistema llamado PAMAV al cual consiste, fundamentalmente, en la incorporación de un reactor anaerobio de líquido (RAL) en las PTRP para tratar el líquido sobrenadante proveniente de los sedimentadores existentes en estas planta. En el presente trabajo se muestran las ecuaciones que pueden servir para el diseño de este reactor, así como el comportamiento cinético del mismo