Contamination assessment and potential sources of heavy metals and other elements in sediments of a basin impacted by 500 years of mining in central Mexico.

Since the middle of the 1500 s, mining has been active in central Mexico. Total estimates for low-grade piles and mine tailing materials in the Guanajuato mining district (GMD) are in the range of 150 million tons, covering an area of 15 to 20 km2. GMD is located in the Guanajuato River sub-basin (GRB), which is part of one of the largest basins in Mexico (Lerma-Santiago). Previous studies on the GRB found unusually high concentrations of heavy metals in mining tailings and sediments. Geochemical and statistical methods were used here to determine the sediment's origin, background values, degree of contamination, and toxicity through different contamination indices. This analysis shows that Cu, Co, As, Sb, and Hg are higher than they are in the upper continental crust (UCC) overbank sediments without human and mining influence, because of the ore deposits and rock weathering in GRB. Geochemistry results in stream sediments show anomalies, where Hg, Cu, Zn, As, and Pb are higher than UCC because those heavy metals and trace elements (HMT) have been influenced by human activities and mineral recovery (smelting, amalgamation, cyanidation). The distribution of high concentrations of HMTs and contamination indices occur in the main channel of the Guanajuato River and downstream of the city of Guanajuato. Statistical analyses (cluster and principal component analysis) reveal relationships between Cr, Ni, Cu, and Pb, which are primarily of natural origin, related to rocks of the upper basin. The middle and lower basins are distinctive in their associations between As, Sb, Zn, Pb, and Hg. Additionally, it is recognized that the origins of Pb, Zn, and Hg are geogenic and anthropogenic. This study demonstrates how crucial it is to understand the geochemistry of various HMT sources, with both natural and anthropogenic contributions (stream sediments and rocks), in order to calculate a more realistic background in a basin with both natural anomalies and anthropogenic contamination. The basin is a regional aquifer recharge area, so the new geochemical data are important for improving basin environmental management.

Caracterización de las farmacias comunitarias de Santa Clara para la implementación de la Dispensación de Medicamentos / Characterization of community pharmacies in Santa Clara city for the implementation of drug dispensing

Introducción: la inclusión del Servicio de Dispensación de Medicamentos en la Atención Farmacéutica, busca evidenciar la participación del farmacéutico en el logro de resultados positivos en los tratamientos, basado en los conocimientos farmacoterapéuticos y principios éticos que identifican esta profesión. La caracterización de las farmacias comunitarias resulta elemental para trazar acciones que permitan implementar dicho servicio. Objetivo: caracterizar las farmacias comunitarias de Santa Clara para la implementación del Servicio de Dispensación de Medicamentos. Métodos: se realizó una investigación en sistemas y servicios de salud con un enfoque sistémico (evaluación de la estructura, el proceso y los resultados). El estudio fue observacional, descriptivo y transversal. El contexto espacial lo constituyeron las farmacias comunitarias del municipio de Santa Clara, en el período comprendido entre enero y mayo de 2010. Se seleccionó el 30 por ciento del total de farmacias comunitarias del municipio de Santa Clara. Resultados: la disponibilidad de los recursos humanos fue limitada y no existieron suficientes recursos materiales para sustentar el servicio. El 95,2 por ciento de los farmacéuticos comunitarios presentaron altas necesidades de aprendizaje sobre Dispensación y no existieron Procedimientos Normalizados de Trabajo. A través de la observación directa se determinó que el servicio no se ejecutó, lo cual se corroboró con la encuesta realizada a los usuarios. Conclusiones: las farmacias comunitarias del municipio de Santa Clara se caracterizan por tener una estructura parcialmente adecuada y por ser el proceso y los resultados no adecuados para la ejecución del Servicio de Dispensación de Medicamentos.

Introduction: the drug dispensing service as part of the pharmaceutical care is aimed at showing the involvement of the pharmacist in attaining positive results of therapies, based on the pharmaco-therapeutic knowledge and the ethical principles of this profession. The characterization of community pharmacies is important to take actions to implement this service. Objectives: to characterize the community pharmacies of Santa Clara city for implementation of the drug dispensing service there. Methods: an observational, descriptive and cross-sectional research study was carried out in health systems and services with a systemic approach (assessment of structure, process and results). The universe of study was the community pharmacies of Santa Clara city, from January to May, 2010. Thirty percent of these pharmacies was selected. Results: limited availability of human resources in addition to lack of material resources to keep the service operating. Most of the pharmacists at community level (95.2 percent) presented learning requirements on dispensing and there were no standardized working methods. The direct observation allows determining that the service was inadequate, which was corroborated in a survey to users. Conclusions: the characterization of the community pharmacies in Santa Clara city yielded that their structure is not fully adequate; and neither the process nor the results are suitable for the implementation of the drug dispensing service.

Caracterización de las farmacias comunitarias de Santa Clara para la implementación de la Dispensación de Medicamentos / Characterization of community pharmacies in Santa Clara city for the implementation of drug dispensing

Introducción: la inclusión del Servicio de Dispensación de Medicamentos en la Atención Farmacéutica, busca evidenciar la participación del farmacéutico en el logro de resultados positivos en los tratamientos, basado en los conocimientos farmacoterapéuticos y principios éticos que identifican esta profesión. La caracterización de las farmacias comunitarias resulta elemental para trazar acciones que permitan implementar dicho servicio. Objetivo: caracterizar las farmacias comunitarias de Santa Clara para la implementación del Servicio de Dispensación de Medicamentos. Métodos: se realizó una investigación en sistemas y servicios de salud con un enfoque sistémico (evaluación de la estructura, el proceso y los resultados). El estudio fue observacional, descriptivo y transversal. El contexto espacial lo constituyeron las farmacias comunitarias del municipio de Santa Clara, en el período comprendido entre enero y mayo de 2010. Se seleccionó el 30 por ciento del total de farmacias comunitarias del municipio de Santa Clara. Resultados: la disponibilidad de los recursos humanos fue limitada y no existieron suficientes recursos materiales para sustentar el servicio. El 95,2 por ciento de los farmacéuticos comunitarios presentaron altas necesidades de aprendizaje sobre Dispensación y no existieron Procedimientos Normalizados de Trabajo. A través de la observación directa se determinó que el servicio no se ejecutó, lo cual se corroboró con la encuesta realizada a los usuarios. Conclusiones: las farmacias comunitarias del municipio de Santa Clara se caracterizan por tener una estructura parcialmente adecuada y por ser el proceso y los resultados no adecuados para la ejecución del Servicio de Dispensación de Medicamentos.(AU)

Introduction: the drug dispensing service as part of the pharmaceutical care is aimed at showing the involvement of the pharmacist in attaining positive results of therapies, based on the pharmaco-therapeutic knowledge and the ethical principles of this profession. The characterization of community pharmacies is important to take actions to implement this service. Objectives: to characterize the community pharmacies of Santa Clara city for implementation of the drug dispensing service there. Methods: an observational, descriptive and cross-sectional research study was carried out in health systems and services with a systemic approach (assessment of structure, process and results). The universe of study was the community pharmacies of Santa Clara city, from January to May, 2010. Thirty percent of these pharmacies was selected. Results: limited availability of human resources in addition to lack of material resources to keep the service operating. Most of the pharmacists at community level (95.2 percent) presented learning requirements on dispensing and there were no standardized working methods. The direct observation allows determining that the service was inadequate, which was corroborated in a survey to users. Conclusions: the characterization of the community pharmacies in Santa Clara city yielded that their structure is not fully adequate; and neither the process nor the results are suitable for the implementation of the drug dispensing service.(AU)