Teamwork and Decision Making among Basketball Referees: The 3PO Principle, Refereeing Level, and Experience.

In this study, the three-person officiating (3PO) principle was employed as an innovative method to examine decision-making (DM) processes among basketball referees. We aimed at exploring whether the ranking, experience, and teamwork among 25 basketball referees could predict accuracy of DM in ambiguous situations taken from basketball games. An analysis of 283 officiating cases taken from 100 filmed games was conducted. The events were then classified by nine experts according to whether the officiating decision was accurate, and which referee (Lead, Centre or Trail) was standing in the main coverage area, as per the 3PO principle, when the decision was made. Our findings indicate that the teamwork (coordination) component was associated with the quality of DM. Of the 283 events, 60 decisions (21%) were not made from the recommended position according to the 3PO principle; 49 of those decisions were incorrect. The findings are discussed from both developmental and instructional perspectives.

"Icing the shooter" in basketball: The unintended consequences of time-out management when the game is on the line.

While the sport of basketball is usually characterized by a non-segmented and mostly uninterrupted play, the stoppage of the time due to time-outs (TOs) is widespread when the game is on the line. In the current investigation, we studied the effects of TOs on free-throw performance when NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) games were close and time was winding down (n = 99,026 combined sample). We generally found that time extension before execution undermined performance but not in the last minute of play when performance deteriorated altogether. In line, traditional icing when TOs were called by opposing coaches specifically to undermine performance in the last minute of play failed to exact the intended goal of lowering free-throw performance.

Fighting with their back to the wall: An analysis of one-sided elimination games in National Basketball Association (NBA) playoffs.

In the current study we have used 25 seasons of National Basketball Association (NBA) playoffs and regular season data in order to study human performance under varied incentives. Namely, we have focused on "must win or go home" playoff games to determine if the high pressure experienced by the team playing with its back to the wall (i.e., one-sided elimination game) will boost or undermine performance. Extending existing research, we identified 456 one-sided elimination games, we accounted for regular season performance and controlled for the relative strength of the teams. Our analysis of 11 game parameters failed to observe the anticipated boosting "back to the wall" effect, nor have we detected an overwhelming choking. Instead, current results suggest that when the stakes are already high (i.e., playoffs), additional pressure induced by being in a "back to the wall" situation is only slightly detrimental.

The "Empty-Goal" Rule Change from the Perspective of International-Level Team Handball Goalkeepers.

The 2016 "empty-goal" rule change in team handball allowed for swift goalkeeper-player substitutions, which opened the door to a variety of tactical solutions that could not be implemented prior to the change. This change is one of many rule changes that have taken place in ball games in general and in handball in particular that were aimed to improve the competition and make gameplay more interesting. Previous literature shows that more often than not, such rule changes have led to unforeseen and undesired effects on players' and teams' behavior and performance. The aim of the current study was to consider the empty-goal rule from the goalkeeper's perspective, as their offense-defense game routine was drastically transformed following the introduction of this new rule. Results of a survey among 95 professional goalkeepers, 80 of whom participated in international matches, revealed that the keepers' level of confidence in empty-goal situations is moderate to high, that empty goal is rarely practiced more than once a week, and that less experienced goalkeepers are more positive regarding this rule change. Additionally, we found that the amount of empty-goal practice is positively related to the approval of the empty-goal rule among goalkeepers.

The development of metrics for measuring the level of symmetry in team formation and ball movement flow, and their association with performance.

OBJECTIVE: In the current study, we examined how football players' usage of space and the teams' ball movement flow throughout the match are associated with the quality of performance achieved in competition. METHODS: We constructed two novel metrics that aimed at measuring spatial symmetry and passing flow on a team-wide scope. Our aim was to clarify whether the way players position themselves throughout the match, and the passing patterns they produce, can explain team success. RESULTS: An analysis of all matches played in the 2018-2019 English Premier League season (N = 380) revealed a positive relationship between the teams' spatiotemporal dynamics and team performance. CONCLUSION: Based on the findings of our analysis, we discuss the strengths and limitations of the newly-developed metrics, and stress the need for additional studies examining their effectiveness.

Estimation of injury costs: financial damage of English Premier League teams' underachievement due to injuries.

BACKGROUND: In individual sports, the effect that injuries have on an athlete's performance, success and financial profit is implicit. In contrast, the effect of a single player's injury or one player's absence in team sports is much more difficult to quantify, both from the performance perspective and the financial perspective. OBJECTIVES: In this study, we attempted to estimate the effect of injuries on the performance of football teams from the English Premier League (EPL), and the financial implications derived from this effect. METHODS: Our analysis is based on data regarding game results, injuries and estimations of the players' financial value for the 2012-2013 through the 2016-2017 seasons. RESULTS: We found a statistically significant relationship (r=-0.46, 95% CI -0.6 to -0.28, p=0.001) between the number of days out due to injuries suffered by team members during a season and the place difference between their actual and expected finish in the EPL table (according to overall player value). Moreover, we can interpolate that approximately 136 days out due to injury causes a team the loss of one league point, and that approximately 271 days out due to injury costs a team one place in the table. This interpolation formula is used as a heuristic model, and given the relationship specified above accounts for a significant portion of the variance in league placement (21%), the remaining variance is related to other factors. Calculating the costs of wage bills and prize money, we estimate that an EPL team loses an average of £45 million sterling due to injury-related decrement in performance per season. CONCLUSION: Professional football clubs have a strong economic incentive to invest in injury prevention and rehabilitation programmes.

Searching for momentum in NBA triplets of free throws.

The literature on momentum is still undecided, with mixed results whether momentum exists or is only perceived to exist ("hot hand fallacy"). We explore whether momentum exists by looking at cases in which a basketball player has three consecutive free throws. A free throw is a well-defined task executed in a stable environment, allegedly giving momentum optimal chances to occur. Taking 14 NBA seasons we collected over 4500 three-free-throw sets (triplets). We obtained the outcomes of the shots as well as some additional variables about the player and the game: the player's average free-throw percentage, home or away, and the game score and the quarter when the free throws were attempted. We first analyse the hit rates in the three shots and then proceed to regression analysis that also controls for the abovementioned variables. We address several concerns raised in the literature. All comparisons and analyses yield the same conclusion that there is no evidence for momentum in the data.

Choking or Delivering Under Pressure? The Case of Elimination Games in NBA Playoffs.

Neoclassical economic theories foretell that individuals exert the most effort, and consequently produce their best performances, when the net returns to effort are highest. We scanned through 33 NBA seasons and analyzed 1930 playoffs games in order to test this prediction. Analysis of win probabilities in games where one of the two teams faces elimination from the playoffs, demonstrated that the threat of severe losses didn't lead to elevated level of performance. While previous studies analyzed mainly single-level performance in a stable environment, our results shed light on collective performance in a dynamic setting. These findings can be applicable to other realms as we suggest that managers should refrain from deliberate building of high-pressure environments with hopes of achieving performance enhancement effect among their groups.

Searching for Judgment Biases Among Elite Basketball Referees.

An attacking basketball player initiating significant physical contact with a defender who has already established a legal and stationary position, should be called with an offensive foul. Offensive foul situations are particularly ambiguous and complex, making the referee's task a difficult one. In such conditions of complexity and constraints of time, the referee is likely to be prone to systematic biases, as has been documented by previous research in other sport settings. We analyzed the referees' decisions in 250 instances of collisions between an attacking player and a defender. In these collisions the defender fell, and potentially an offensive foul could be called. We found no evidence of favoritism granted to the home team, to star players, or to high-reputation teams, or of small players being tackled by significantly larger opponents. The findings suggest that these biases are not very robust, and are sensitive to the context, and that proper training of referees and enhanced awareness can help to alleviate referees' biases.