Habitual Nocturnal Sleep, Napping Behavior, and Recovery Following Training and Competition in Elite Water Polo: Sex-Related Effects.

PURPOSE: To examine nocturnal sleep patterns, napping behaviors, and subjective wellness responses of elite water polo players within an in-season week and to identify whether sleeping patterns differ between men and women. METHODS: Sleep characteristics of 10 male and 17 female professional water polo players were objectively assessed during 1 week of the in-season period, including 5 training days, 1 match day, and 1 day of rest. Internal load (rating of perceived exertion × duration of training or match) was assessed 30 minutes posttraining or postmatch, and the total quality of recovery was recorded every morning. A series of multilevel models were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: Time in bed and wake-up time were earlier on both training (P < .001) and rest days (P < .001) than on the day of the match. Internal workload did not predict any of the players' sleeping patterns. Midday naps predicted less time in bed (P = .03) and likely less sleep time (P = .08). The total quality of recovery was predicted only by the total sleep time (P < .01). Women exhibited higher sleep efficiency (P < .001), less waking after sleep onset (P = .01), and a lower number of awakenings (P = .02) than men. CONCLUSIONS: The current results indicate that the nocturnal sleep patterns of elite water polo players are not associated with internal load and that women display better nocturnal sleep quality compared with men. As long naps interfere with nocturnal sleep, and total nocturnal sleep time predicts total quality of recovery, we suggest that athletes follow hygiene sleep strategies to facilitate adequate nocturnal sleep and next-day recovery.

Muscle Architecture Adaptations to Static Stretching Training: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Long-term stretching of human skeletal muscles increases joint range of motion through altered stretch perception and decreased resistance to stretch. There is also some evidence that stretching induces changes in muscle morphology. However, research is limited and inconclusive. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of static stretching training on muscle architecture (i.e., fascicle length and fascicle angle, muscle thickness and cross-sectional area) in healthy participants. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: PubMed Central, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus were searched. Randomized controlled trials and controlled trials without randomization were included. No restrictions on language or date of publication were applied. Risk of bias was assessed using Cochrane RoB2 and ROBINS-I tools. Subgroup analyses and random-effects meta-regressions were also performed using total stretching volume and intensity as covariates. Quality of evidence was determined by GRADE analysis. RESULTS: From the 2946 records retrieved, 19 studies were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis (n = 467 participants). Risk of bias was low in 83.9% of all criteria. Confidence in cumulative evidence was high. Stretching training induces trivial increases in fascicle length at rest (SMD = 0.17; 95% CI 0.01-0.33; p = 0.042) and small increases in fascicle length during stretching (SMD = 0.39; 95% CI 0.05 to 0.74; p = 0.026). No increases were observed in fascicle angle or muscle thickness (p = 0.30 and p = 0.18, respectively). Subgroup analyses showed that fascicle length increased when high stretching volumes were used (p < 0.004), while no changes were found for low stretching volumes (p = 0.60; subgroup difference: p = 0.025). High stretching intensities induced fascicle length increases (p < 0.006), while low stretching intensities did not have an effect (p = 0.72; subgroup difference: p = 0.042). Also, high intensity stretching resulted in increased muscle thickness (p = 0.021). Meta-regression analyses showed that longitudinal fascicle growth was positively associated with stretching volume (p < 0.02) and intensity (p < 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Static stretching training increases fascicle length at rest and during stretching in healthy participants. High, but not low, stretching volumes and intensities induce longitudinal fascicle growth, while high stretching intensities result in increased muscle thickness. REGISTRATION: PROSPERO, registration number: CRD42021289884.

No aspect of structure should be left behind in relation to student autonomous motivation.

BACKGROUND: Provision of structure in classroom settings constitutes one of the pillars of conducive learning environments. However, little is known whether the particular elements of provided structure-namely, contingency, clear expectations, help and support, and monitoring-are equally important for student learning and motivation. AIMS: In this cross-sectional study, we aimed to investigate to what extent students' autonomous motivation is linearly and curvilinearly related to their perceptions of their teachers' contingency, clear expectations, help and support, and monitoring. SAMPLE: Participants were 12,036 Turkish adolescent students (age range: 15-19 years; 54.4% males) from 446 classes, nested into 24 public schools. METHODS: Cross-sectional, based on student ratings of their self-determined motivation and their teacher structure provision and autonomy support. RESULTS: Multilevel and ordinary least-squares polynomial regression analyses showed all the four perceived structure elements to predict autonomous motivation, with expectations and contingency (especially when coupled with monitoring) being even more important predictors than the other elements. Response surface analyses also showed strong positive relation between autonomous motivation and all the possible pairs of the four elements of perceived structure along the line of congruence, suggesting an additive effect when teachers are thought to be contingent and helpful and supportive (or monitor their students, or clearly communicate their expectations). CONCLUSIONS: These findings imply the key role that teachers could play in enhancing their students' autonomous motivation by providing all the elements of structure.

Toward a Better Understanding of the Reciprocal Relations Between Adolescent Psychological Need Experiences and Sleep.

In two diary studies, we examined the reciprocal daily association between the satisfaction and frustration of adolescents' basic psychological needs and sleep, and the role of stress and fatigue in these associations. In Study 1 (N = 211; 52% female; Mage = 15.86 years, SD = 1.18 years), daily need experiences were unrelated to daily fluctuations in subjective sleep outcomes. However, shorter daily sleep quantity was related to higher daily fatigue, which in turn related to more daily need frustration and less need satisfaction. Study 2 (N = 51; 49% female; Mage = 15.88 years, SD = 2.88 years) extended these findings by demonstrating that daily need frustration related to shorter objective sleep quantity and longer wake after sleep onset, indirectly through higher symptoms of stress. Poor sleep quality also related to worse need experiences via higher daily fatigue. These findings underscore the dynamic interplay between daily need experiences and adolescent sleep.

Towards a detailed understanding of preschool children's memory-related functioning and emotion regulation: The role of parents' observed reminiscence style, memory valence, and parental gender.

This study examined the role of parents' reminiscing style in preschoolers' memory-related functioning and general emotion regulation. In 87 families, each parent rated their child's (Mage = 4.07 years, SD = 0.80) emotion regulation and discussed a positive and a negative memory with their child (resulting in 275 conversations). Multilevel analyses showed that children's rated engagement during the conversation was higher when parents were observed to use autonomy-supportive, elaborative, and positive evaluative reminiscing, while children's rated disaffection was predicted by low autonomy support, low elaboration, and negative evaluation. Parental positive evaluation also related positively to children's memory performance. With respect to emotion regulation, only parents' negative evaluation when talking about negative memories related to higher emotional lability. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Understanding Physical Activity Intentions in Physical Education Context: A multi-level Analysis from the Self-Determination Theory.

Using self-determination theory as a framework, we aimed to study the relationships between perceived need support and need satisfaction with self-determined motivation and extracurricular physical activity intentions in the physical education (PE) classroom, including sex and out-of-school sport participation as moderators. Additionally, we aimed to test whether a need-supportive classroom environment in PE moderates these associations. Participants were 1259 students (556 males) aged between 12 to 16 years (Mage = 13.46 years; SD = 0.74) from 77 PE classes. At the student level we found (a) need satisfaction to predict positively autonomous motivation and negatively amotivation, and (b) autonomous motivation to predict positively and amotivation to predict negatively intentions to undertake extracurricular physical activities. At the classroom level, in need-supportive classes males benefit more than females in terms of increased autonomous motivation while females benefit more than males in terms of decreased amotivation. Finally, class-level perceived need support moderated (i.e., attenuated) the negative association between need satisfaction and amotivation and between amotivation and intentions. These results suggest a buffering role that a need-supportive classroom environment may have on students' motivation and behavior.

Need Satisfaction as a Mediator of Associations between Interparental Relationship Dimensions and Autonomy Supportive Parenting: A Weekly Diary Study.

Guided by the self-determination theory, this weekly diary study tested a process model in which week-to-week mother-reported interparental conflict and perceived partner responsiveness were associated with maternal autonomy support by means of maternal psychological need satisfaction. During six consecutive weeks, 258 mothers (Mage  = 41.71 years) and their 157 adolescents (51.4% females, Mage  = 14.92 years) from Turkey provided weekly reports of the study variables via an online survey. Multilevel analyses showed that maternal need satisfaction was predicted by lower levels of interparental conflict and greater levels of perceived partner responsiveness. Maternal need satisfaction, in turn, was positively associated with maternal and adolescent reports of maternal autonomy support. Further, these week-to-week associations were partly moderated by maternal perfectionism. The results underscore the dynamic nature of the intra-family relationships, the important role of particular conditions in which mothers may become more autonomy supportive, and the necessity to consider mother's personal characteristics while examining these dynamics.

Guided by the self-determination theory, this weekly diary study tested a process model in which week-to-week mother-reported interparental conflict and perceived partner responsiveness were associated with maternal autonomy-support by means of maternal psychological need satisfaction. During 6 consecutive weeks, 258 mothers (Mage = 41.71 years) and their 157 adolescents (51.4% females, Mage = 14.92 years) from Turkey provided weekly reports of the study variables via an online survey. Multilevel analyses showed that maternal need satisfaction was predicted by lower levels of interparental conflict and greater levels of perceived partner responsiveness. Maternal need satisfaction, in turn, was positively associated with maternal and adolescent reports of maternal autonomy-support. Further, these week-to-week associations were partly moderated by maternal perfectionism. The results underscore the dynamic nature of the intra-family relationships, the important role of particular conditions in which mothers may become more autonomy supportive, and the necessity to consider mother's personal characteristics while examining these dynamics.

Reciprocal associations between daily need-based experiences, energy, and sleep in chronic fatigue syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Previous findings indicate that patients with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) report significant day-to-day fluctuations in subjective energy and sleep. Herein, we examined whether daily variation in the satisfaction and frustration of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness would contribute to daily variation in subjective energy and quality and quantity of sleep. In addition, we examined whether daily variation in sleep would contribute to daily need-based experiences through (i.e., mediated by) daily fluctuations in subjective energy. METHOD: CFS patients (N = 120; 92% female; Mage = 42.10 years, SD = 10.46) completed a diary for 14 days which assessed their need-based experiences and subjective energy every evening and sleep every morning. RESULTS: Results indicated that subjective energy, sleep, and need experiences fluctuated significantly from day to day. Daily need satisfaction related to less daily fatigue and more daily vitality, while the opposite pattern was observed for daily need frustration. Daily need frustration was also uniquely related to poorer daily sleep quality. Lastly, better daily sleep quality was also uniquely related to more daily need satisfaction and less daily need frustration via (i.e., mediated by) daily variation in subjective energy. These reciprocal within-day associations remained significant after controlling for the previous day's level of each outcome, with the exception of the relation between need frustration and sleep quality. CONCLUSION: The present findings underscore the reciprocal day-to-day association between need-based experiences and subjective energy in CFS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Intrapersonal Achievement Goals and Underlying Reasons among Long Distance Runners: Their Relation with Race Experience, Self-Talk, and Running Time.

In a sample of long distance runners, we examined the role of type of intrapersonal achievement goals (i.e., approach versus avoidance) and type of underlying reasons (i.e., autonomous and controlled), assessed prior to the race, as predictors of both pre-race (e.g., race appraisals) and post-race (e.g., flow experience) outcomes. Of 221 (62.4% males) runners, 111 reported pursuing an intrapersonal-approach goal (i.e., doing better than before) as their dominant or preferred achievement goal for the race, while 86 prioritized intrapersonal-avoidance goals (i.e., avoiding to perform worse than before). Regression and path analyses showed that the type of achievement goals predicted none of the outcomes except for running time, with approach goals predicting better performance when compared to avoidance goals. Path analyses revealed that autonomous reasons underlying intrapersonal goal pursuit related positively to pre-race challenge appraisals, performance and, via need satisfaction, to flow experience. Interestingly, controlled reasons positively related to pre-race threat appraisals and positively predicted both positive and negative self-talk, with both yielding opposing relations with flow. These findings complement past research on the intersection between the Achievement Goal Approach and Self-Determination Theory and highlight the value of studying the reasons underlying intrapersonal achievement goals.

A Tribute to Dr. Willy Lens.

Dr. Willy Lens, born on December 10th, 1943, passed away on August 29th, 2014. With his passing, the motivation community has lost a seminal member, a mentor, and a friend. Dr. Lens - a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science and Founding Fellow of the American Educational Research Association - made fundamental contributions to the study of motivation both through his own work and through his caring and thoughtful mentorship of a large community of scholars. With this tribute, we want to honor Dr. Willy Lens' significance to psychology and education as well as his positive influence, both personally and professionally, on the lives of dozens of scholars. With his contagious enthusiasm and caring mentorship, Willy was an example for our academic community and with this tribute we express our gratitude for the privilege to have collaborated with him.

Emerging Trends and Future Directions for the Field of Motivation Psychology: A Special Issue in Honor of Prof. Dr. Willy Lens.

This special issue is devoted to Prof. Dr. W. Lens, who passed away end of August 2014 while he was vacationing. The special issue is meant to honor Willy's intellectual contribution to the field of motivation psychology and his enthusiastic and devoted mentorship, which has spurred many of us to study motivation-related topics. In line with Willy's interest and extensive network, the special issue brings together scholars from diverse theoretical perspectives (i.e., Achievement Goal Theory, Future Time Perspective Theory, and Self-Determination Theory) and diverse cultural backgrounds (i.e., China, Peru, Greece, Portugal, Belgium, US, Australia, Canada). We introduce the special issue by highlighting four emerging trends that characterize contemporary motivation psychology and that were central to Willy's work: (a) multiperspectivism (i.e., a reliance on multiple motivational frameworks); (b) the diversity of motives and goals that underlie behavior (i.e., motivational heterogeneity); (c) interest in motives for non-participation; and (d) the issue of universalism versus relativism (i.e., the question whether there exist universal motivational processes or whether these processes are contingent upon sociodemographic, personality-based, and contextual factors). Each of the eight contributions in the special issue touch upon one or more of these emerging themes, which are critically discussed in conjunction with a number of directions for future research.

Enriching the hierarchical model of achievement motivation: autonomous and controlling reasons underlying achievement goals.

BACKGROUND: The hierarchical model of achievement motivation presumes that achievement goals channel the achievement motives of need for achievement and fear of failure towards motivational outcomes. Yet, less is known whether autonomous and controlling reasons underlying the pursuit of achievement goals can serve as additional pathways between achievement motives and outcomes. AIMS: We tested whether mastery approach, performance approach, and performance avoidance goals and their underlying autonomous and controlling reasons would jointly explain the relation between achievement motives (i.e., fear of failure and need for achievement) and learning strategies (Study 1). Additionally, we examined whether the autonomous and controlling reasons underlying learners' dominant achievement goal would account for the link between achievement motives and the educational outcomes of learning strategies and cheating (Study 2). SAMPLE: Six hundred and six Greek adolescent students (Mage = 15.05, SD = 1.43) and 435 university students (Mage M = 20.51, SD = 2.80) participated in studies 1 and 2, respectively. METHOD: In both studies, a correlational design was used and the hypotheses were tested via path modelling. RESULTS: Autonomous and controlling reasons underlying the pursuit of achievement goals mediated, respectively, the relation of need for achievement and fear of failure to aspects of learning outcomes. CONCLUSION: Autonomous and controlling reasons underlying achievement goals could further explain learners' functioning in achievement settings.

Perceived coach-created and peer-created motivational climates and their associations with team cohesion and athlete satisfaction: evidence from a longitudinal study.

In this longitudinal study, we examined the extent to which perceived coach- and peer-created motivational climates are associated with athlete-group cohesion and satisfaction with participation among Spanish soccer players competing in the Third National Division. Multilevel modelling analyses showed that perceived coach-created task climate was positively related to perceived cohesion and players' satisfaction with their participation within their team. Also, perceived peer-created task climate related positively to perceived cohesion. The results indicate the importance of considering peer-related aspects of the motivational climate in addition to considering the coach-related aspects of the motivational climate when examining motivational group dynamics in sport.

Examining correlates of game-to-game variation in volleyball players' achievement goal pursuit and underlying autonomous and controlling reasons.

In the current study we aimed to examine the antecedents and outcomes associated with the variability in competitive volleyball players' (N = 67; Mage = 19.45; SD = 5.13) situational achievement goal pursuit and its underlying autonomous and controlling reasons. Players were followed during six consecutive games and data were analyzed through multilevel modeling. Players' dominant contextual goal pursuit reported at the onset of the study related to their situational (i.e., game-specific) goal pursuit. Further, variation in game-to-game mastery-approach goal pursuit, as compared with the pursuit of other achievement goals, related to variation in prosocial behavior. Finally, autonomous reasons underlying situational mastery-approach goal pursuit related positively to games-specific prosocial behavior, enjoyment, and performance satisfaction. The discussion emphasizes the necessity to study players' game-to-game motivational dynamics and the reasons underlying players' achievement goal pursuit.

Perceived parental psychological control and adolescent depressive experiences: a cross-cultural study with Belgian and South-Korean adolescents.

In recent research on psychologically controlling parenting, debate has arisen about the cross-cultural relevance of this construct, with some scholars arguing that the developmental outcomes of psychological control are culture-bound and others arguing that the detrimental effects of psychological control generalize across cultures. This study aimed to add to this debate by examining the relevance of a distinction between two domain-specific expressions of psychological control (i.e., dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented) in Belgian (N = 290) and South-Korean (N = 321) adolescents. Multi-group path analyses showed that associations between the domains of psychological control, depressive personality, and depressive symptoms were similar between the two samples. Overall, the findings are in line with the notion that the effects of psychological control generalize across culture.

How you provide corrective feedback makes a difference: the motivating role of communicating in an autonomy-supporting way.

We relied on self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) to investigate to what extent autonomy-supporting corrective feedback (i.e., feedback that coaches communicate to their athletes after poor performance or mistakes) is associated with athletes' optimal motivation and well-being. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a cross-sectional study with 337 (67.1% males) Greek adolescent athletes (age M = 15.59, SD = 2.37) from various sports. Aligned with SDT, we found through path analysis that an autonomy-supporting versus controlling communication style was positively related to future intentions to persist and well-being and negatively related to ill-being. These relations were partially mediated by the perceived legitimacy of the corrective feedback (i.e., the degree of acceptance of corrective feedback), and, in turn, by intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, and external regulation for doing sports. Results indicate that autonomy-supporting feedback can be still motivating even in cases in which such feedback conveys messages of still too low competence.

Detaching reasons from aims: fair play and well-being in soccer as a function of pursuing performance-approach goals for autonomous or controlling reasons.

In two cross-sectional studies we investigated whether soccer players' well-being (Study 1) and moral functioning (Studies 1 and 2) is related to performance-approach goals and to the autonomous and controlling reasons underlying their pursuit. In support of our hypotheses, we found in Study 1 that autonomous reasons were positively associated with vitality and positive affect, whereas controlling reasons were positively related to negative affect and mostly unrelated to indicators of morality. To investigate the lack of systematic association with moral outcomes, we explored in Study 2 whether performance-approach goals or their underlying reasons would yield an indirect relation to moral outcomes through their association with players' objectifying attitude-their tendency to depersonalize their opponents. Structural equation modeling showed that controlling reasons for performance-approach goals were positively associated with an objectifying attitude, which in turn was positively associated to unfair functioning. Results are discussed within the achievement goal perspective (Elliot, 2005) and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

The motivating role of positive feedback in sport and physical education: evidence for a motivational model.

Based on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), an experimental study with middle school students participating in a physical education task and a correlational study with highly talented sport students investigated the motivating role of positive competence feedback on participants' well-being, performance, and intention to participate. In Study 1, structural equation modeling favored the hypothesized motivational model, in which, after controlling for pretask perceived competence and competence valuation, feedback positively predicted competence satisfaction, which in turn predicted higher levels of vitality and greater intentions to participate, through the mediation of autonomous motivation. No effects on performance were found. Study 2 further showed that autonomous motivation mediated the relation between competence satisfaction and well-being, whereas a motivation mediated the negative relation between competence satisfaction and ill-being and rated performance. The discussion focuses on the motivational role of competence feedback in sports and physical education settings.