A Look at the Anatomy Educator Job Market: Anatomists Remain in Short Supply.

In 2002, a widely publicized report projected an anatomy educator shortage based on department chairpersons' perceptions. Now, 17 years later, the question lingers: "Does an anatomy educator shortage persist and, if so, how severe is the shortage?" Trends in the number, type, and fill rate of anatomy educator job openings were explored by analyzing job posting in the United States over the past two years. A survey was distributed to leaders of anatomy-related departments in the United States, Canada, and European Union. Most departmental leaders who responded (65% or more) from the United States/Canada (n = 81) and the European Union (n = 52) anticipate they will have "moderate" to "great" difficulty hiring anatomy educators in gross anatomy, histology, and embryology over the next five years. Within the United States, the number of anatomy educator job postings at medical schools more than doubled from at least 21 postings in 2017 to 52 postings in 2018. Twenty-one percent of postings between 2017 and 2018 were never filled. While the number of anatomy educator openings within the United States/Canada is perceived to remain in a steady state for the next five years, the European Union estimates a five-fold increase in the number of openings. Departmental leaders prioritize anatomy educator applicants who have teaching experience (mean ± SD = 4.64 ± 0.84 on five-point Likert scale), versatility in teaching multiple anatomy disciplines (3.93 ± 1.07), and flexibility in implementing various teaching pedagogies (3.69 ± 1.17). Collectively, these data suggest the shortage of anatomy educators continues in the United States/Canada and the European Union.

A core syllabus for the teaching of gross anatomy of the thorax to medical students.

Discussion is ongoing concerning the need to ensure the clinical relevance of the biomedical sciences. However, clinical relevance within health care courses presupposes that there is internationally agreed core material to be taught and learned. For anatomy, by the initial use of Delphi Panels that comprise anatomists, scientists, and clinicians, the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAAs) is developing internationally accepted core syllabuses for all anatomical sciences disciplines in the health care professions. In this article, the deliberations of a Delphi Panel for the teaching of thoracic anatomy in the medical curriculum are presented, prior to their publication on the IFAA's website. To develop the syllabus further, it is required that anatomical societies, as well as individual anatomists and clinicians, comment upon, elaborate, and amend this draft recommended syllabus. The aim is to set internationally recognized standards and thus to provide guidelines concerning the knowledge of the human thorax expected of graduating medical professionals. Such information should be borne in mind by those involved in the development of medical courses. Clin. Anat. 33:300-315, 2020. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The perceptions of anatomists in the US and Europe of the skills and attributes required of newly-recruited medical students.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Admission procedures for recruiting students to medical school vary considerably across the world. Notwithstanding such variability, it is important to know what skills and attributes (including attitudes and personality traits) are required of the students by their teachers on entering medical school. PROCEDURES: Anatomists are often the teachers who first meet the students as they enter medical school and this report analyses, by means of a paper-based questionnaire, the putative skills required of their medical students by anatomists from the U.S.A. and Europe. Questionnaires were distributed to 150 anatomists, of varying ages and teaching experience, with 108 responding with completed questionnaires (i.e. 72% returns). FINDINGS: The findings from a questionnaire suggest that there are few differences between anatomists in the U.S.A. and Europe, even though medical students are postgraduates in the U.S.A. but undergraduates in Europe. Furthermore, the skill requirements expected of the students differed only slightly according to the gender and age of the anatomists and to whether or not they had clinical qualifications. In order of perceived importance, the most important skills and attributes required of the students were found to be: good study skills, memory/factual retention, conscientiousness, emotional stability, understanding of biology (but not chemistry, physics, mathematics, statistics, or understanding of the scientific method), life-long learning skills, ability to study independently, problem-solving abilities, readiness to be challenged, communication skills, and teamwork skills. CONCLUSIONS: Anatomists within the U.S.A. and Europe essentially agree on the skills and attributes initially required of their medical students, as well as those not deemed initially important. These findings are presented with the view of enhancing admission policies and procedures for admitting students into medical schools.

A critique of utilitarian and instrumentalist concepts for the teaching of gross anatomy to medical and dental students: Provoking debate.

Medical and dental curricula, together with anatomical sciences courses, are increasingly having to change, mainly because there is a drive to being what is termed, without adequate definition, "clinically relevant." The concept of "clinical anatomy" has accordingly been invented and it is expected that, at all times, the teaching of anatomy is directly focused on clinical scenarios, meaning almost invariably the disease-based model of medicine and dentistry. Furthermore, students are not expected to have a detailed knowledge of gross anatomy and the time devoted to teaching and learning the subject has decreased significantly. The notion being fostered is that knowledge is not required "just in case" but "just in time." However, the absence of agreed core syllabuses that are internationally accepted complicates a discussion about what is relevant practically and what does not need to be taught. In this article, we critique such an utilitarian and instrumentalist approach to the teaching of gross anatomy within medical and dental curricula. We draw attention to the need to embrace the functionality-based model of medicine and dentistry by returning to an understanding that the role of the medical or dental practitioner is to value health and to restore to functionality the ill person or the pathologically affected region/organ/system. A fuller knowledge of anatomy than is presently taught is regarded as a prerequisite for appreciating normality and health. A further problem with the instrumentalist approach to medical education is that, by concentrating on what is seen to be at the time "useful" or "clinically relevant," there is the danger of undermining, or discouraging, future developments that rely on what contemporaneously seems "useless" and "irrelevant" knowledge. Finally, the reliance instrumentalism has on just what is pragmatic and regardless of scientific validity is contrary to the ethos and practice of a university education that values deep learning and the development of learnèd professions. Clin. Anat. 30:912-921, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Medical students and professional anatomists do not perceive gender bias within imagery featuring anatomy.

Previous studies suggest that, while both medical students and professional anatomists recognize the importance of gender issues and do not wish to associate with sexism, most are unaware of the possible negative aspects of sexism within anatomy (Morgan et al. , J. Anat. 224:352-365; , Clin. Anat. 29:892-910). To further investigate this issue, we provided second year medical students at Cardiff University (n = 293) and at the University of Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (n = 142) and professional anatomists (n = 208) with a questionnaire inviting them to address the possibility that gender factors within anatomical imagery (both historical and contemporary) hinder the dispassionate representation of anatomy. Ethical approval for the survey was obtained from the universities at both Cardiff and Paris. In the light of previous findings, the hypothesis tested was that medical students and professional anatomists do not perceive a gender bias when reflected in imagery that is based on anatomical iconography. Our survey results support this hypothesis and suggest that most students and anatomists are unaware of the possible negative aspects of sexism within the culture of anatomy. We consequently recommend that teachers of anatomy and authors of anatomical textbooks should be aware of the possibility of adverse effects on professional matters relating to equality and diversity issues when using imagery. Clin. Anat. 30:711-732, 2017. © 2017Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Embryology and Teratology in the Curricula of Healthcare Courses

Significant changes are occurring worldwide in courses for healthcare studies, including medicine and dentistry. Critical evaluation of the place, timing, and content of components that can be collectively grouped as the anatomical sciences has however yet to be adequately undertaken. Surveys of teaching hours for embryology in US and UK medical courses clearly demonstrate that a dramatic decline in the importance of the subject is in progress, in terms of both a decrease in the number of hours allocated within the medical course and in relation to changes in pedagogic methodologies. In this article, we draw attention to the need to provide within medical and dental curricula a universally accepted terminology for embryology and teratology, to develop core syllabuses and, in addition to providing professional training, to follow the practice of university education in taking students to the frontiers of knowledge. We also discuss different ways of teaching and assessing embryology and teratology, preferring to see the employment of practical methodologies, and we highlight problems related to the poor attitudes of students towards the perceived clinical relevance of embryology and teratology

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Outcomes and satisfaction of two optional cadaveric dissection courses: A 3-year prospective study.

Teaching time dedicated to anatomy education has been reduced at many medical schools around the world, including Nova Medical School in Lisbon, Portugal. In order to minimize the effects of this reduction, the authors introduced two optional, semester-long cadaveric dissection courses for the first two years of the medical school curriculum. These courses were named Regional Anatomy I (RAI) and Regional Anatomy II (RAII). In RAI, students focus on dissecting the thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and perineum. In RAII, the focus shifts to the head, neck, back, and upper and lower limbs. This study prospectively analyzes students' academic achievement and perceptions within the context of these two, newly-introduced, cadaveric dissection courses. Students' satisfaction was assessed anonymously through a questionnaire that included items regarding students' perception of the usefulness of the courses for undergraduate teaching, as well as with regards to future professional activity. For each of the three academic years studied, the final score (1 to 20) in General Anatomy (GA), RAI, and RAII was on average 14.26 ± 1.89; 16.94 ± 1.02; 17.49 ± 1.01, respectively. The mean results were lower in GA than RAI or RAII (P < 0.001). Furthermore, students who undertook these courses ranked them highly with regards to consolidating their knowledge of anatomy, preparing for other undergraduate courses, and training for future clinical practice. These survey data, combined with data on participating students' academic achievement, lend strong support to the adoption of similar courses as complementary and compulsory disciplines in a modern medical curriculum. Anat Sci Educ 10: 127-136. © 2016 American Association of Anatomists.

A core syllabus for the teaching of embryology and teratology to medical students.

Clinical relevance in the teaching of biomedical sciences within health care courses presupposes that there is internationally agreed core material within the curricula. However, with the exception of a syllabus for neuroanatomy and gross anatomy of the head and neck for medical students, core syllabuses within many of the specialized anatomical sciences have yet to be developed. The International Federation of Associations of Anatomists aims to formulate internationally accepted core syllabuses for all anatomical sciences disciplines initially using Delphi Panels that comprise anatomists, scientists, and clinicians who evaluate syllabus content. Here, the suggestions of a Delphi Panel for embryology and teratology are presented prior to their publication on the website of the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists. Hence, to obtain a more definitive syllabus, it is required that anatomical and embryological/teratological societies, as well as individual anatomists, embryologists and clinicians, freely comment upon, elaborate and amend, this draft syllabus. The goal is to set internationally recognized standards and thereby provide guidelines concerning embryological and teratological knowledge when involved with course development. Clin. Anat. 30:159-167, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Sexism within anatomy as perceived by professional anatomists and in comparison with the perceptions of medical students.

Two hundred and eight professional anatomists responded to a questionnaire inviting them to address the possibility that social/gender factors hinder the dispassionate representation of anatomy. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from Cardiff University. The results of the survey provided comparisons with the attitudes of medical students that have previously been reported (Morgan et al., 2014). Although a few differences were discerned between females and males in our surveys and between anatomists and medical students, overall our findings suggest that, while both professional anatomists and medical students recognize the importance of gender issues and do not wish to associate with sexism, most are unaware of the possible negative aspects of sexism within anatomy. We recommend that teachers of anatomy should become more aware of the possibility of adverse effects on professional matters relating to equality and diversity issues. Clin. Anat. 29:892-910, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

How optional should regional anatomy be in a medical course? An opinion piece.

The use of optional (elective) courses within the medical curriculum is increasingly being seen as a way of allowing students to pursue their studies according to their personal interests. For anatomy, particularly where the subject is being taught in an integrative curriculum and by means of a systemic approach, the development of elective regional anatomy courses is being employed to reintroduce regional anatomy and/or dissection by students. However, there is presently little evidence that objectively evaluates optional/elective courses. In this paper we critique the concept and practice of using elective courses and assess whether their deployment is ultimately in the interests of medical education, the medical profession, society in general and the layperson (potential patient) in particular. Clin. Anat. 29:702-710, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The place of neuroanatomy in the curriculum

Increasingly, with major changes taking place worldwide in health care studies courses (including medicine and dentistry), there is a need to critically evaluate the place, timing, and content of components that used to be grouped collectively under the banner of ‘anatomy’. This is certainly true for neuroanatomy where there are so many new research developments that it is difficult to keep pace with changes in the subject and where clinical relevance, for the present time and for the future, is a major consideration. In this chapter we emphasise the need to provide a universally accepted terminology, to outline core syllabuses for medicine and dentistry and to review how syllabuses might develop for other health care courses, for science and psychology courses, and to make a case for neuroanatomy courses to follow the practice of university education in hinting at the frontiers of knowledge as well as providing professional training

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The History of the Teaching of Gross Anatomy - How we got to where we are

Evidence primarily from historical considerations is gathered to compare a variety of approaches to the teaching and learning of gross (topographical) human anatomy. The historical approach adopted is not just a chronological approach to the development of pedagogy but is conceptually based to underline the changing culture of medicine and the ways in which normal and abnormal structure and function have been considered. Although there is often claimed to be an unbreachable divide between ‘traditionalists’ and ‘modernists’ amongst teachers of gross anatomy, and although the method of teaching gross anatomy by means of dissection by the students is frequently referred to as the ‘traditional’ method, historically this method only came into its heyday relatively recently when legislation permitted a sufficiency of bodies to dissect and with the advent of experiential learning and the development of the idea of students achieving competency skills. Paradoxically, the so-called ‘modern’ way (e.g. problem-based learning, computer-based learning) that relies more on library/book work and computer simulations harks back to the pre-Renaissance scholastic approach. Our findings suggest that, as anatomy teaching has moved away from dissection by students, the culture of medicine has become more inclined towards the disease-based model and not towards the functionality (health) -based model. Overall, we conclude that the main focus of attention historically has been the rôle of dissection. Where in the past religious authorities were foremost in condemning dissection now it is academic and postmodernist strictures that denigrate historical perspectives

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The development of a core syllabus for the teaching of head and neck anatomy to medical students.

The study of human anatomy has traditionally served as a fundamental component in the basic science education of medical students, yet there exists a remarkable lack of firm guidance on essential features that must be included in a gross anatomy course, which would constitute a "Core Syllabus" of absolutely mandatory structures and related clinical pathologies. While universal agreement on the details of a core syllabus is elusive, there is a general consensus that a core syllabus aims to identify the minimum level of knowledge expected of recently qualified medical graduates in order to carry out clinical procedures safely and effectively, while avoiding overloading students with unnecessary facts that have less immediate application to their future careers as clinicians. This paper aims to identify consensus standards of essential features of Head and Neck anatomy via a Delphi Panel consisting of anatomists and clinicians who evaluated syllabus content structures (greater than 1,000) as "essential", "important", "acceptable", or "not required." The goal is to provide guidance for program/course directors who intend to provide the optimal balance between establishing a comprehensive list of clinically relevant essential structures and an overwhelming litany, which would otherwise overburden trainees in their initial years of medical school with superficial rote learning, which potentially dilutes the key and enduring fundamental lessons that prepare students for training in any medical field.

Building an open academic environment - a new approach to empowering students in their learning of anatomy through 'Shadow Modules'.

Teaching and learning in anatomy is undertaken by a variety of methodologies, yet all of these pedagogies benefit from students discussing and reflecting upon their learning activities. An approach of particular potency is peer-mediated learning, through either peer-teaching or collaborative peer-learning. Collaborative, peer-mediated, learning activities help promote deep learning approaches and foster communities of practice in learning. Students generally flourish in collaborative learning settings but there are limitations to the benefits of collaborative learning undertaken solely within the confines of modular curricula. We describe the development of peer-mediated learning through student-focused and student-led study groups we have termed 'Shadow Modules'. The 'Shadow Module' takes place parallel to the formal academically taught module and facilitates collaboration between students to support their learning for that module. In 'Shadow Module' activities, students collaborate towards curating existing online open resources as well as developing learning resources of their own to support their study. Through the use of communication technologies and Web 2.0 tools these resources are able to be shared with their peers, thus enhancing the learning experience of all students following the module. The Shadow Module activities have the potential to lead to participants feeling a greater sense of engagement with the subject material, as well as improving their study and group-working skills and developing digital literacy. The outputs from Shadow Module collaborative work are open-source and may be utilised by subsequent student cohorts, thus building up a repository of learning resources designed by and for students. Shadow Module activities would benefit all pedagogies in the study of anatomy, and support students moving from being passive consumers to active participants in learning.

Sexism and anatomy, as discerned in textbooks and as perceived by medical students at Cardiff University and University of Paris Descartes.

Contemporary textbooks of anatomy and surface anatomy were evaluated to ascertain whether they were gender-neutral. The evidence of this, and previous studies, suggests that, both in terms of imagery and text, many textbooks lack neutrality. To further investigate such matters, we provided second-year medical students studying at Cardiff University (n = 293) and at the Paris Descartes University (n = 142) during the 2011-2012 academic year with a questionnaire inviting them to address the possibility that social/gender factors hinder the dispassionate representation of anatomy. Ethical approval was obtained from both Cardiff and Paris universities. Eighty-six percent of the students at Cardiff and 39% at Paris Descartes responded and provided data for analysis. The hypothesis tested is that medical students perceive a gender bias that is reflected in the books they read and the tuition they receive. Our findings suggest that, while students recognise the importance of gender issues and do not wish to associate with sexism, most are unaware of the possible negative aspects of sexism within anatomy. In this respect, the findings do not support our hypothesis. Nevertheless, we recommended that teachers of anatomy and authors of anatomy textbooks should be aware of the possibility of adverse effects on professional matters relating to equality and diversity issues.

The tori of the mouth and ear: a review.

There is a great deal of literature regarding the tori of the mouth and ear. However, there is controversy regarding the etiology and prevalence of each. The torus palatinus is generally agreed to be the most common oral exostosis and is more frequently found in females. The torus mandibularis is also quite common, is more prevalent in males, and occurs bilaterally in 80% of cases. Far less data have been presented regarding the torus maxillaries primarily due to the lack of consensus regarding its nomenclature and classification. These oral tori are thought to be inherited in an autosomal dominant manner with a relatively high penetrance; however, environmental and functional factors have been postulated that may account for a more complex etiology than simply genetics. The torus auditivus is rarely acknowledged in clinical papers and most data are found in anthropological journals. Although there is an abundance of literature that addresses these traits individually, there is a lack of research that collectively acknowledges these. Therefore, the aim of this study was to present a composite review of the tori with regards to their anatomical features, prevalence, etiology and clinical relevance.

Should Gross Anatomy be taught systemically or regionally?

While the teaching of gross anatomy remains a topic of considerable discussion (and occasional controversy), in terms of the time allocated, timing within the course, content and clinical relevance, and the use of cadavers and dissection by students, there is relatively little discourse about whether gross anatomy should be taught systemically and/or regionally or whether anatomy should be integrated or a stand-alone course. This brief article analyses the differences between the systemic and region approaches, suggests ways in which the efficacy of these approaches might be investigated, and assesses how they might be integrated into other biomedical sciences and into clinical disciplines. Overall, we conclude that, even within health care studies courses such as medicine that are integrated, there should be a standalone component for the study of gross anatomy that takes a regional approach; although undoubtedly study of anatomy both systemically and regionally would be the ideal situation (time and resources permitting) (AU)

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The legal and ethical framework governing Body Donation in Europe - 1st update on current practice

Previously, we have reported on the legal and ethical aspects and current practice of body donation in several European countries, reflecting cultural and religious variations as well as different legal and constitutional frameworks. We have also established good practice in body donation. Here we shall further extend the legal and ethical frameworks in place and also focus on novelties in the law and different directives. Of particular interest are points that address the commercialization of human bodies and body parts and weaknesses in the legal directives. Therefore, it is important to define what is ethical and what needs to be considered unethical in body donation and the subsequent utilisation of human bodies for teaching and research (AU)

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