Drug delivery to macrophages: a review of nano-therapeutics targeted approach for inflammatory disorders and cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Macrophages are involved in the normal defense of the body; however, the varying phenotypes of macrophages and imbalance in their ratio lead to the impairment of immune response initiating the production of inflammation. As the role of macrophages in immunological disorders and their surface receptors modulation has already been manifested; hence, macrophages can be exploited to make them a viable candidate for targeted delivery, which was not possible with previously designed conventional therapies for the immune disorders. AREAS COVERED: Nanotechnology is a promising, clear cut, efficient, and adequate approach for targeting macrophages. Literature addresses the receptors available for targeting and the novel small dimensional therapeutic delivery vehicles to target them along with a brief overview of the role of macrophages in these diseases. Furthermore, the patents based on this idea are also listed. EXPERT OPINION: Targeted drug delivery to macrophages should take into consideration the plasticity of macrophages and their modulation over time in the diseases. A cost-effective scale-up method of development will further facilitate the clinical trials. Besides, the implementation of safety guidelines to target macrophages and the studies of long-term effects of targeted approaches in humans would highly encourage the clinical outcomes.

Prevalence, molecular diagnosis and treatment of Mycoplasma conjunctivae isolated from infectious keratoconjunctivitis affected Lohi sheep maintained at Livestock Experiment Station, Bahadurnagar, Okara, Pakistan.

Mycoplasma conjunctivae are etiological agents of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), commonly known as pink-eye in domestic sheep, goats and other wild animals in many parts of the world. A few young Lohi lambs maintained at Livestock Experiment Station (LES), Bahadurnagar, Okara, Pakistan showed clinical signs and symptoms of conjunctivitis, keratitis, severe lacrimation and varying degree of blindness. During January to March, 2011, a total of 36 ocular swabs were collected from IKC affected animals and were processed for isolation, identification, and characterization of M. conjunctivae. Sixteen (44.44 %) out of 36 samples showed turbidity in PPLO broth. Twelve (75 %) out of 16 broth samples showed colony growth on PPLO agar. All 16 (44.44 %) out of 36 turbid broth samples, 12 (75 %) out of 16 cultured on agar plate samples, and 21 (59 %) out of 36 sheep ocular direct swab samples were found positive for M. conjunctivae through polymerase chain reaction test by using M. conjunctivae-specific primer pair McoF1 and McoR1 and detecting a 750 base pair fragment on agarose gel. Topical application of 0.5 % sterile solution of gentamycin (100 mg/ml) (Gentafar 10 %, FARVET, Netherlands) proved suitable for the treatment of IKC in Lohi lambs as all clinical signs of IKC disappeared after 5 days of treatment with this antibiotic. This is the first report about the prevalence, molecular diagnosis, and treatment of M. conjunctivae in Lohi sheep affected with infectious keratoconjunctivitis at LES, Bahadurnagar, Okara, Pakistan.

Prevalence and Molecular Diagnosis of Babesia ovis and Theileria ovis in Lohi Sheep at Livestock Experiment Station (LES), Bahadurnagar, Okara, Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Babesia ovis and Theileria ovis are among the important and main etiological agents causing ovine babesiosis and ovine theileriosis, causing severe economic losses among sheep and goats. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence and molecular diagnosis of B. ovis and T. ovis in Lohi sheep at Livestock Experiment Station Bahadurnagar, Okara, Pakistan. METHODS: The prevalence of B. ovis and T. ovis was investigated in 200 Lohi sheep of mixed age and sex by PCR during 2011. The assay was employed using primers Bbo-F & Bbo-R, specific for a 549-bp fragment in B. ovis genomic DNA and primers TSsr 170F & TSsr 670R, specific for a 520-bp fragment in T. ovis genomic DNA. The animals were also screened for both haemoparasites through stained thin blood smears. RESULTS: Thirty two (16%), 48 (24%) and 26 (13%) were the number of animals found positive for B. ovis, T. ovis and for mixed infection with both parasites, respectively, through microscopy. Sixty eight (34%), 73 (37%) and 42 (21%) were the number of animals found positive for B. ovis, T. ovis and for mixed infection with both parasites, respectively, through PCR test. CONCLUSION: The results indicate the high sensitivity of PCR for surveying babesiosis and theileriosis and there is noteworthy prevalence of these diseases in sheep at an experimental station where environmental conditions are relatively controlled as compared to field conditions.

Prevalence and molecular diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in Nili-Ravi buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in different districts of Punjab (Pakistan).

The prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi was investigated in 1,250 Nili-Ravi buffaloes of mixed age and sex by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the first time in Pakistan. DNA of the trypanosomes was isolated with TRIREAGENT®. The assay was employed using primers ESAG 6/7, specific for a 237-bp fragment from T. evansi genomic DNA. The samples were screened for the presence of T. evansi also by stained thin smear. Forty-four (3.5%) samples were positive by microscopy, while 97 (7.7%) samples were identified by PCR, indicating the high sensitivity of PCR for surveying the disease in epidemiological studies.