A review of the public health impacts of unconventional natural gas development.

The public health impact of hydraulic fracturing remains a high profile and controversial issue. While there has been a recent surge of published papers, it remains an under-researched area despite being possibly the most substantive change in energy production since the advent of the fossil fuel economy. We review the evidence of effects in five public health domains with a particular focus on the UK: exposure, health, socio-economic, climate change and seismicity. While the latter would seem not to be of significance for the UK, we conclude that serious gaps in our understanding of the other potential impacts persist together with some concerning signals in the literature and legitimate uncertainties derived from first principles. There is a fundamental requirement for high-quality epidemiological research incorporating real exposure measures, improved understanding of methane leakage throughout the process, and a rigorous analysis of the UK social and economic impacts. In the absence of such intelligence, we consider it prudent to incentivise further research and delay any proposed developments in the UK. Recognising the political realities of the planning and permitting process, we make a series of recommendations to protect public health in the event of hydraulic fracturing being approved in the UK.

Maritally violent men's heart rate reactivity to marital interactions: a failure to replicate the Gottman et al. (1995) typology.

In an attempt to replicate the J. M. Gottman et al. (1995) batterer typology, 58 men who had engaged in moderate-to-severe marital violence in the past year were studied. The sample was split into Gottman et al.'s Type 1 men (i.e., whose heart rates decreased, from baseline, during a marital conflict task) and Type 2 men (i.e., whose heart rates increased). The groups did not differ in the manner predicted on measures of marital violence, antisocial or aggressive-sadistic personality, drug dependence, criminality, general violence, childhood exposure to interparental violence, behavior during marital interactions, or relationship stability. Contrary to expectations, wives of Type 1 men rated their husband as more jealous and angry and reported more marital distress. In the only finding consistent with Gottman et al., Type 2 men scored higher on a measure of dependent personality. Implications for future research are discussed.

Heart rate reactivity in male batterers: reply to Gottman (2001) and a second look at the evidence.

Together, the results of 3 studies examining heart rate reactivity (HRR) in male batterers do not provide strong support for the J. M. Gottman et al. (1995) batterer typology. All research groups found similar proportions of severely violent male batterers who show heart rate increases or decreases during a marital conflict discussion, but there was inconsistent validation of this taxonomy on variables of interest. This difference was also found among less violent and nonviolent men. The authors believe HRR may be useful for differentiating batterers on the dimension of anger-hostility but are less optimistic that HRR will reliably identify psychopathic or antisocial batterers. The authors do not agree that low levels of marital interaction conflict led to their failure to replicate. Reanalysis of data from J. C. Meehan, A. Holtzworth-Munroe, and K. Herron (2001) suggests baseline artifacts may be an important determinant of HRR differences. Methodological changes may improve the reliability of HRR assessment.

Testing the Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) batterer typology.

A. Holtzworth-Munroe and G. L. Stuart (1994) proposed that 3 subtypes (family only [FO], borderline-dysphoric [BD], and generally violent-antisocial [GVA]) would be identified using 3 descriptive dimensions (i.e., severity of marital violence, generality of violence, psychopathology) and would differ on distal and proximal correlates of violence. Maritally violent men (n = 102) and their wives were recruited from the community, as were 2 comparison groups of nonviolent couples (i.e., maritally distressed and nondistressed). Four clusters of violent men were identified. Three resembled the predicted subtypes and generally differed in the manner predicted (e.g., FO men resembled nonviolent groups: BD men scored highest on measures of dependency and jealousy; GVA men had the most involvement with delinquent peers, substance abuse, and criminal behavior; and both BD and GVA men were impulsive, accepted violence, were hostile toward women, and lacked social skills). The 4th cluster (i.e., low-level antisocial) fell between the FO and GVA clusters on many measures.

Demand and withdraw communication among couples experiencing husband violence.

Two studies compared marital communication behaviors of violent and nonviolent couples. In Study 1, violent distressed (VD) men reported more husband demand-wife withdraw than did nonviolent men. Distressed men reported less mutual constructive communication and more mutual blame and avoidance than did nondistressed men. Interactions of VD, violent nondistressed (VND), nonviolent distressed (NVD), and nonviolent nondistressed couples were coded in Study 2. VD spouses tended to engage in the most demand and withdraw and the least positive behavior; violent couples had the highest levels of contempt. On some codes, VND couples resembled NVD couples, suggesting that violence without distress may correlate differently with marital communication than violence in combination with distress and that severity of violence is important to consider.

Comparing the emotional reactions and behavioral intentions of violent and nonviolent husbands to aggressive, distressed, and other wife behaviors.

The present study was designed to compare the self-reported emotional reactions and behavioral intentions of violent and nonviolent husbands to a variety of wife behaviors depicted with standardized stimuli. We recruited four subject groups, including 25 men beginning domestic violence treatment programs and three groups from the community-21 maritally violent and maritally distressed men, 23 nonviolent/distressed men, and 28 nonviolent/nondistressed men. Using stimuli and measures derived from Biglan, Rothlind, Hops, and Sherman (1989), along with stimuli designed for this study, subjects read written descriptions and examples of various wife statements (e.g., aggressive, distressed, and facilitative) and viewed videotaped depictions of wife behaviors varying in verbal content and nonverbal affect (i.e., aggressive/irritated, aggressive/dysphoric, distressed/irritated, and distressed/dysphoric). In response to each wife behavior, subjects rated what their emotional reactions (e.g., sympathetic, caring, supportive, sad, anxious, irritated, angry) and their behavioral responses (e.g., try to comfort, say something supportive, discuss the subject, not say anything, say something hostile, argue) would be. As predicted, in response to a wide range of wife behaviors, and relative to nonviolent men, violent men were less likely to report sympathetic/positive emotions and more likely to experience anger and irritation, but not other negative (i.e., sad or anxious) emotions. They were also more likely to report negative behavioral intentions and less likely to report positive behavioral intentions. The theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Typologies of male batterers: three subtypes and the differences among them.

Previous typologies of male batterers, including typologies developed by means of rational-deductive and empirical-inductive strategies, are reviewed. On the basis of this review, 3 descriptive dimensions (i.e., severity of marital violence, generality of the violence [toward the wife or toward others], and psychopathology/personality disorders) that consistently have been found to distinguish among subtypes of batterers are identified. These dimensions are used to propose a typology consisting of 3 subtypes of batterers (i.e., family only, dysphoric/borderline, and generally violent/antisocial). A developmental model of marital violence is then presented, and the previous literature is reviewed to examine how each batterer subtype might differ on variables of theoretical interest. Finally, some of the methodological limitations of previous typology research are reviewed, and suggestions for future work are offered.

Affect, verbal content, and psychophysiology in the arguments of couples with a violent husband.

The purpose of this investigation was to study the affect, psychophysiology, and violent content of arguments in couples with a violent husband. On the basis of self-reports of violent arguments, there were no wife behaviors that successfully suppressed husband violence once it began; moreover, husband violence escalated in response to nonviolent as well as violent wife behaviors, whereas wife violence escalated only in reaction to husband violence or emotional abuse. Only wives were fearful during violent and nonviolent arguments. The observational coding of nonviolent arguments in the laboratory revealed that both battering husbands and their wives (DV) were angrier than their maritally distressed but nonviolent (DNV) counterparts. As predicted, on the more provocative anger codes, only DV men differed from their DNV counterparts. However, DV wives were as verbally aggressive toward their husbands as DV husbands were toward their wives.

Attributing negative intent to wife behavior: the attributions of maritally violent versus nonviolent men.

This study compared attributions for negative wife behavior offered by three groups of husbands: 22 maritally violent and distressed, 17 nonviolent but maritally distressed, and 17 nonviolent and nondistressed. Husbands rated wife behaviors presented in nine hypothetical problematic marital situation vignettes. On a measure of responsibility attributions, violent husbands were more likely than nondistressed husbands to attribute negative intentions, selfish motivation, and blame to the wife. On a measure of possible negative wife intentions, violent husbands were more likely than either distressed or nondistressed men to attribute negative intentions to the wife. Exploratory analyses suggested that certain types of marital situations (e.g., jealousy and rejection from wife) were particularly likely to elicit attributions of negative intent from violent husbands.

Recruiting nonviolent men as control subjects for research on marital violence: how easily can it be done?

Data regarding the prevalence of violence among subjects recruited for nonviolent control groups in five studies are presented. These studies examined subjects recruited using a variety of methods, including couples seeking marital therapy and couples recruited from newspaper advertisements. Across the studies, it appears that up to one-third of maritally nondistressed couples and one-half of maritally distressed couples report that husband violence has occurred in their relationship. The implications of these data for the recruitment of control groups in future studies of marital violence are discussed, and questions regarding the ease of recruiting nonviolent couples for control groups are raised.

The competency of responses given by maritally violent versus nonviolent men to problematic marital situations.

The present study was designed to examine the social skills of maritally violent men by comparing the responses offered by violent and nonviolent men to potential marital conflicts. Problematic marital situation vignettes were presented to three subject groups: 22 maritally violent husbands, 17 nonviolent and maritally distressed husbands, and 17 nonviolent and nondistressed husbands. Subjects were asked what they would do or say in each of the situations; their responses were coded for level of competency. Violent men offered responses which were less competent than those offered by nonviolent comparison subjects in certain types of marital situations (i.e., situations involving rejection from the wife, jealousy, and challenges from the wife); the responses offered by violent and nonviolent men did not differ significantly in other types of situations (i.e., situations involving the wife's wanting something from the husband or the wife's teasing the husband). Subjects were also asked what would be the best thing to do in response to a subset of the problematic marital situations; responses were coded for level of competency. In response to this question, violent men offered less competent responses than those offered by either comparison group, suggesting that violent men have difficulty generating competent responses. The theoretical implications of these data are discussed.

Relationship between behavioral marital therapy outcome and process variables.

This study was conducted to identify therapist and client behaviors associated with a positive response to social learning-based behavioral marital therapy. A sample of 32 couples receiving treatment was examined. Immediately after each therapy session, the therapist, husband, and wife independently completed process rating forms that measured therapist and client behaviors during the session. Composite scales, derived from these ratings, were entered into multiple regression equations to examine their relationship with posttherapy marital satisfaction. After controlling for pretherapy marital satisfaction and the other predictor variables, therapists', husbands', and wives' ratings of positive client behavior (i.e., collaboration, active participation, and homework compliance) were positively associated with therapy outcome. Implications for marital therapy and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Marital therapy and spouse involvement in the treatment of depression, agoraphobia, and alcoholism.

This article examines the literature on marital therapy and spouse involvement as treatments for major psychopathology. The focus is on three disorders that have attracted a sufficient number of empirical findings: depression, agoraphobia, and alcoholism. For each of these disorders, we first examine the relation between marital dynamics and the disorder and next discuss empirical efforts to evaluate the impact of marital therapy or spouse involvement on the disorder. In addition, we summarize trends and suggest methodological refinements for future research.

Research-structured vs clinically flexible versions of social learning-based marital therapy.

The purpose of this study was to compare our structured research-based version of marital therapy from a social learning perspective with a clinically flexible version of the same treatment where treatment plans were individually-based and there was no specific number of treatment sessions. Thirty distressed married couples were randomly assigned to one of these two treatments. Assessment of outcome was based on global marital satisfaction, spouse reports of functioning in specific areas, and direct observational measures of communication. At posttest there were no differences in efficacy between structured and flexible treatments, although both treatments led to significant improvements. At a 6-month follow-up couples treated with the structured format were more likely to have deteriorated and flexibly treated couples were more likely to have maintained their treatment gains.

Causal attributions of married couples: when do they search for causes? What do they conclude when they do?

In this study, we examined when and whether married people engage in attributional activity or form causal attributions to explain their partners' behavior. We used an indirect probe to better approximate naturally occurring cognitive activity. We also examined the content of spouses' causal attributions, using both direct and indirect probes. Spouses were asked about frequent as well as infrequent relationship events, and about partner behaviors that had positive or negative impacts on the recipient. Husbands in unsatisfying relationships reported more attributional thoughts than did happily married husbands, whereas wives in the two groups did not differ. Behaviors having negative impacts elicited more attributional activity than did positive behaviors. Behavioral frequency and impact interacted in ways contrary to predictions. Finally, distressed couples were particularly likely to report distress-maintaining attributions and were particularly unlikely to report relationship-enhancing attributions, compared with their nondistressed counterparts.

Effects of specific active immunization on tumor recurrence following primary tumor resection in WF rats with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced bowel cancer.

Primary gastrointestinal tumors were induced in male WF rats by 16 weekly sc injections of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine [(DMH) CAS: 540-73-8; 20 mg/kg/wk]. Twenty-four to 28 weeks after the start of DMH injections, all rats were surgically explored and gastrointestinal tumors were resected. Rats with no remaining microscopic disease after operation were immunized with one of four tumor isografts. The first isograft, DMH-W163, is a poorly differentiated mucinous adenocarcinoma explanted from a colon cancer in a DMH-treated animal. It has been shown to possess antigens that cross-react with other DMH-induced bowel adenocarcinoma isografts. The second isograft, DMH-W49, is a carcinosarcoma explanted from a DMH-treated primary colon cancer. It has intermediate antigenic cross-reactivity with other colon adenocarcinoma isografts in the WF model. The third isograft, DMH-W15, is a sarcoma explanted from a DMH-induced colon cancer that does not possess antigens cross-reactive with other DMH-induced colon adenocarcinomas. The fourth isograft, SPK, is a spontaneous (non-DMH-induced) renal cell carcinoma that is immunogenic but should not contain tissue-type-specific antigens cross-reacting with the bowel cancers. Immunized rats received three sc weekly injections of 1 X 10(3) irradiated cells. Concomitant control rats received no immunization after resection of the primary tumor. Within 24 weeks of primary tumor resection, 12 of 16 (75%) rats not immunized had tumor recurrence. Only 8 of 24 (34%) rats immunized with DMH-W163 had tumor recurrence (P less than .025 compared to controls). Fifty percent of animals (10/20) immunized with the carcinosarcoma DMH-W49 had a recurrence. Animals immunized with the non-cross-reacting DMH-W15 sarcoma isograft had a recurrence rate similar to that of controls (16/20, 75%). The rats immunized with SPK were not protected from recurrence. Twelve of 19 (63%) had a recurrence at or near the suture line within 24 weeks following primary tumor resection. These results confirm that adjuvant immunotherapy can decrease the rate of recurrence following primary tumor resection in this model. In addition, immunogens that possessed tissue-type-specific antigens were more effective in preventing tumor recurrence than those that did not.