An alarming trend: Change in the risk profile of patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction over the last two decades.

BACKGROUND: Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of mortality around the world. We sought to study changes in the risk profile of patients presenting with ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). METHODS: We retrospectively studied all patients presenting with STEMI to our center between 1995 and 2014. Patients were divided into four quartiles, 5years each. Baseline risk factors and comorbidities were recorded. Sub-analysis was done for patients with established CAD and their household incomes. RESULTS: A total of 3913 patients (67.9% males) were included; 42.5% presented with anterior STEMI and 57.5% inferior STEMI. Ages were 64±12, 62±13, 61±13 and 60±13 in the four quartiles respectively. Obesity prevalence was 31, 37, 38 and 40% and diabetes mellitus prevalence was 24, 25, 24 and 31%, while hypertension was 55, 67, 70 and 77%, respectively, p<0.01 for all. Smoking prevalence was 28, 32, 42 and 46, p<0.01. When subgroup analysis was done for patients with history of CAD, prevalence of smoking, obesity, diabetes and hypertension significantly increased across the four quartiles. When patients were divided to four groups based on household income (poor, low middle, middle and high income), prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, smoking and obesity were significantly higher in patients with low income. CONCLUSION: Despite better understanding of cardiovascular risk factors and more focus on preventive cardiology, patients presenting with STEMI over the past 20years are getting younger and more obese, with more prevalence of smoking, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus. This trend is greater in the lower income population.

Coronary Heart Disease in the Middle East and North Africa: Current Status and Future Goals.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The Middle East and North Africa has witnessed a dramatic transformation over the last 30 years caused by rapid urbanization and modernization and significant changes to diet and lifestyle. This review attempts to highlight recent data in regards to ischemic heart disease and its risk factors from the region. RECENT FINDINGS: Ischemic heart disease is now the leading cause of death in the region. Age at presentation with myocardial infarction and acute coronary syndrome appears to be significantly younger than global averages. Increased rates of all major risk factors including diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle have been noted. Specifically, significant changes to dietary habits and growing epidemic of use of alternative tobacco products are noted. This review article highlights the growing epidemic of ischemic heart disease in the region led by dramatic increases in incidence of its risk factors. This epidemic will require a multipronged approach to address the varied issues and mitigate the growing prevalence of the disease.

Relationship of mitral valve annulus plane and circumflex-right coronary artery plane: Implications for Transcatheter Mitral Valve Implantation.

AIM: Transcatheter mitral valve implantation (TMVI) is a novel technology for patients with severe mitral valve disease but at high surgical risk. Imaging guidance during the procedure is critical for successful device deployment. Identification of the mitral annular plane (MAP) with fluoroscopy during the procedure is limited by lack of clearly defined landmarks. We hypothesized that a plane defined by left circumflex-right coronary arteries (LCX-RCA) would have a consistent relationship to MAP. METHODS AND RESULTS: We studied 25 patients with gated cardiac computed tomography. We identified the MAP and the LCX-RCA plane in mid systole and diastole. The distance between the two planes in prespecified four points (anterior, posterior, medial, and lateral) in the apical 2 and 3-chamber views. Alignment of the planes was described by cranial/caudal angulation for both planes in RAO 30° and LAO 90° (lateral) angulation. Mean age was 81 ± 9 years, 56% of patients had ≥2+ mitral regurgitation. In mid systole, the distances between the LCX-RCA plane and the MAP in the four points were < 5 mm in 92% of patients. In mid diastole, distances were < 5 mm in 100% of patients. In mid systole, the correlation between the caudal/cranial orientations of the 2 planes was 0.85 and 0.80 in the LAO 90° and RAO 30°, respectively (P = <0.001). In mid diastole, this was 0.92 and 0.92 in the LAO 90° and RAO 30°, respectively (P = <0.001). CONCLUSION: LCX-RCA plane has a close and consistent relationship to the MAP and can be useful to guide TMVI. Accurate imaging of mitral valve annular plane during TMVI procedure is challenging. MAP guided by fluoroscopy might be crucial to guide successful prosthesis deployment. A plane defined by the left circumflex- right coronary arteries in the atrioventricular grove has a consistent relationship with MAP; this can be used aided by pre-procedural MDCT to guide TMVI procedure. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Bleeding complications of triple antithrombotic therapy after percutaneous coronary interventions.

BACKGROUND: 5% of patients undergoing coronary stenting have an indication for anticoagulation. The aim of our study was to determine the bleeding rates and complications in patients on triple oral antithrombotic therapy (TOAT) after coronary stenting. METHODS: We studied patients who underwent coronary stenting in our institution between 2003-2013 and were started on TOAT. Bleeding was the primary outcome. RESULTS: Totally, 999 patients were treated with TOAT with a median follow up of 127 days. All patients were treated with warfarin as an anticoagulant. 267 patients (26.7%) developed a total of 331 bleeding events. 100 patients had bleeding during the first 30 days of therapy. Major bleeding, minor bleeding, bleeding requiring medical attention, and minimal bleeding developed in 2.9%, 3.3%, 17.2%, and 3.3% of the patients respectively as their most significant bleeding event. Patients with anticoagulation initiated at time of stenting had a significantly higher bleeding rate compared to those already on chronic anticoagulation [adjusted HR (95% CI): 1.37 (1.03-1.79), P = 0.03]. The bleeding likelihood was significantly higher for patients with drug-eluted stents (DES) compared to bare-metal stents (BMS) [adjusted OR (95% CI): 1.52 (1.14 - 2.04), P < 0.05]. Patients with atrial fibrillation had an increased rate of bleeding after 6 month of initiation of TOAT with significantly worse outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: TOAT after coronary stenting is associated with high bleeding rates. Patients with AF had worse outcomes. Patients with newly initiated anticoagulation at time of stenting bleed significantly more than people already on chronic anticoagulation prior to stenting. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Management of drug eluting stent in-stent restenosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The optimal management for coronary drug eluting stent in-stent restenosis (DES ISR) is unclear. We performed a meta-analysis of observational and randomized studies to compare the outcomes of management of DES ISR using DES, drug eluting balloon (DEB), or balloon angioplasty (BA). METHODS: Eligible studies (25 single arm and 13 comparative, including 4 randomized studies with a total of 7,474 patients with DES ISR) were identified using MEDLINE search and proceedings of international meetings. Outcomes studied include major adverse cardiac events (MACE), target lesion revascularization (TLR), target vessel revascularization (TVR), myocardial infarction (MI), stent thrombosis (ST), and mortality. Follow-up ranged from 0.5 to 3.5 years (mean 1.4 years). RESULTS: The rate of TLR was significantly lower in the DES (odds ratio [OR] 0.50, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.36-0.69) and DEB (OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.18-0.55) groups compared to BA. Similarly, TVR rate was significantly lower in the DES (OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.39-0.77) and DEB (OR 0.32, 95% CI 0.18-0.58) groups compared to BA. All other outcomes were similar between the DES/BA and DEB/BA comparisons. TLR was significantly lower in the DES group compared to BA for vessels < or > 2.75 mm. CONCLUSION: Treatment of coronary DES ISR with DES or DEB is associated with a reduction in the risk of TLR and TVR compared to BA alone. The relative risk reduction for TLR with DES is similar to DEB. DEBs have a potential role in the treatment of DES ISR by avoiding placement of another layer of stent. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Plaque microstructures in patients with coronary artery disease who achieved very low low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels.

OBJECTIVE: Lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) with statins reduces cardiovascular events and slows plaque progression. While this therapeutic approach has been reported to favorably modify plaque composition, this is not well characterized in humans. Also, the benefit of achieving LDL-C levels below current recommended targets remains unknown. Frequency-domain optical coherence tomography (FD-OCT) enables visualization of plaque microstructures associated with plaque instability. We investigated plaque morphologies in patients with low LDL-C levels by using FD-OCT. METHODS: 293 and 122 non-obstructive lipid and fibrous plaques in 280 stable statin-treated CAD patients were evaluated by FD-OCT imaging in vessels requiring percutaneous coronary intervention. Study subjects were stratified according to achieved LDL-C levels (<50, 50-70, 70-100, <100 mg/dL). FD-OCT derived plaque microstructures were compared. RESULTS: LDL-C levels <50 mg/dL and <70 mg/dL were observed in 13.9% (39/280) and 29.2% (82/280) of patients, respectively. Patients with LDL-C <50 mg/dL were more likely to be older (p < 0.001) and receive a high-dose statin (p = 0.01). On FD-OCT imaging, patients with LDL-C <50 mg/dL were more likely to have fibrous plaque (51.7, 43.2, 22.2 and 12.3%, p = 0.01) and less likely to have lipid plaques (48.2, 56.7, 77.7 and 87.6%, p = 0.01). In addition, LDL-C level was significantly associated with lipid arc (173 ± 76, 175 ± 88, 196 ± 102 and 234 ± 85°, p = 0.01) and fibrous cap thickness (139.9 ± 93.9, 103.1 ± 66.4, 92.5 ± 48.5 and 92.1 ± 47.8 um, p = 0.001). In particular, the smallest lipid arc and thickest fibrous cap were observed in patients who achieved LDL-C <50 mg/dL. Multivariable analysis revealed LDL-C levels (beta coefficient -0.254, p = 0.009) and high-dose statin use (beta coefficient 1.814, p = 0.003) to independently associate with fibrous cap thickness. CONCLUSIONS: More stable plaque features were observed within non-obstructive atheromas in patients with very low LDL-C levels. These findings underscore LDL-C level to stabilize plaques in patients with CAD and high residual atherosclerotic risk.

Myeloperoxidase levels predict accelerated progression of coronary atherosclerosis in diabetic patients: insights from intravascular ultrasound.

OBJECTIVE: While inflammation has been proposed to contribute to the adverse cardiovascular outcome in diabetic patients, the specific pathways involved have not been elucidated. The leukocyte derived product, myeloperoxidase (MPO), has been implicated in all stages of atherosclerosis. The relationship between MPO and accelerated disease progression observed in diabetic patients has not been studied. METHODS: We investigated the relationship between MPO and disease progression in diabetic patients. 881 patients with angiographic coronary artery disease underwent serial evaluation of atherosclerotic burden with intravascular ultrasound. Disease progression in diabetic (n = 199) and non-diabetic (n = 682) patients, stratified by baseline MPO levels was investigated. RESULTS: MPO levels were similar in patients with and without diabetes (1362 vs. 1255 pmol/L, p = 0.43). No relationship was observed between increasing quartiles of MPO and either baseline (p = 0.81) or serial changes (p = 0.43) in levels of percent atheroma volume (PAV) in non-diabetic patients. In contrast, increasing MPO quartiles were associated with accelerated PAV progression in diabetic patients (p = 0.03). While optimal control of lipid and the use of high-dose statin were associated with less disease progression, a greater benefit was observed in diabetic patients with lower compared with higher MPO levels at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Increasing MPO levels are associated with greater progression of atherosclerosis in diabetic patients. This finding indicates the potential importance of MPO pathways in diabetic cardiovascular disease.

Single center TAVR experience with a focus on the prevention and management of catastrophic complications.

BACKGROUND: Transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) is an important treatment option for patients with severe symptomatic aortic stenosis (AS) who are inoperable or at high risk for complications with surgical aortic valve replacement. We report here our single-center data on consecutive patients undergoing transfemoral (TF) TAVR since the inception of our program, with a special focus on minimizing and managing complications. METHODS: The patient population consists of all consecutive patients who underwent an attempted TF-TAVR at our institution, beginning with the first proctored case in May 2006, through December 2012. Clinical, procedural, and echocardiographic data were collected by chart review and echo database query. All events are reported according to Valve Academic Research Consortium-2. RESULTS: During the study period, 255 patients with AS had attempted TF-TAVR. The procedure was successful in 244 (95.7%) patients. Serious complications including aortic annular rupture (n = 2), coronary occlusion (n = 2), iliac artery rupture (n = 1), and ventricular embolization (n = 1) were successfully managed. Death and stroke rate at 30 days was 0.4% and 1.6%, respectively. One-year follow-up was complete in 171 (76%) patients. One-year mortality was 17.5% with a 3.5% stroke rate. Descending aortic rupture, while advancing the valve, was the only fatal procedural event. There were 24.4% patients with ≥2+ aortic regurgitation. CONCLUSIONS: TAVR can be accomplished with excellent safety in a tertiary center with a well-developed infrastructure for the management of serious complications. The data presented here provide support for TAVR as an important treatment option, and results from randomized trials of patients with lower surgical risk are eagerly awaited.

Successful surgical repair of iatrogenic pulmonary vein stenosis.

Pulmonary vein stenosis can complicate ablation procedures for atrial fibrillation and often presents with severe respiratory symptoms. Described in this case report is a 21-year-old male who underwent a bilateral surgical augmentation of the pulmonary veins for severe occlusive pulmonary vein stenosis. The occluded left lower and right upper lobe veins were surgically modified to regain flow to the left atrium. Follow-up computed tomogram imaging showed patency of the veins intervened upon and an exercise test demonstrated an oxygen saturation of 98% at peak stress.This case report marks the first-ever surgical intervention for acquired pulmonary vein stenosis.

Coronary artery wall enhances with intracoronary injection of echocontrast media during in vivo intravascular ultrasound.

Currently, vascularity of the coronary artery wall can be assessed only in vitro. We sought to determine if there is any contrast enhancement of the coronary artery wall after injection of echocontrast media during in vivo intravascular ultrasound imaging, which may represent blood flow within the wall supplied by the vasa vasorum.

Contrast enhancement of coronary atherosclerotic plaque: a high-resolution, multidetector-row computed tomography study of pressure-perfused, human ex-vivo coronary arteries.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of contrast injection on atherosclerotic coronary plaque attenuation measured using multidetector-row computed tomography. BACKGROUND: Recent multidetector-row computed tomography studies have described the characterization of coronary atherosclerotic plaque on the basis of Hounsfield unit values. The influence of contrast injection on the attenuation of individual plaque components, however, is unknown. METHODS: Using a pressurized perfusion system, 10 human coronary arteries were examined postmortem with multidetector-row computed tomography and histology. Pre-enhanced, peak-enhanced, and delayed enhanced multidetector-row computed tomography images were acquired during continuous perfusion of the vessel. A total of 37 focal atherosclerotic plaques were identified. Vessel wall attenuation was measured from multidetector-row computed tomography images during all three enhancement phases. On the basis of the histology, plaques were categorized as noncalcified (predominantly fibrous or predominantly fibrofatty), mixed calcified (calcified fibrous or calcified necrotic core), or densely calcified. The mean Hounsfield unit was compared among contrast phases for all plaques and in plaque subgroups. RESULTS: We observed contrast enhancement of atherosclerotic plaques within the vessel wall. For noncalcified plaques including both fibrous and fibrofatty plaques, the mean Hounsfield unit of the vessel wall during and after contrast injection exceeded the mean value before injection (t-test, P<0.002). CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrates that intra-arterial injection of iodinated contrast agent results not only in luminal enhancement but also in atherosclerotic plaque enhancement in pressure-perfused coronary arteries imaged ex vivo. Plaque enhancement should be considered when characterizing plaque components on the basis of Hounsfield unit with multidetector-row computed tomography.

Evaluación de la progresión y la regresión de la aterosclerosis coronaria mediante ecografía intravascular. ¿Un nuevo cambio de paradigma? / Assessment of progression and regression of coronary atherosclerosis by intravascular ultrasound. A new paradigm shift?

La ecografía intravascular (EIV) se ha convertido en una importante modalidad de imagen para la evaluación de la pared arterial y de su respuesta a la acumulación de la placa aterosclerótica. La posibilidad de visualizar las arterias coronarias de manera seriada hace que la EIV ofrezca una oportunidad única para estudiar el efecto de las diferentes estrategias antiateroscleróticas en la placa. Por eso, los estudios que han utilizado la EIV de forma seriada como criterio principal de valoración han demostrado que las estrategias terapéuticas que modifican los valores de las lipoproteínas de baja densidad (LDL) y alta densidad (HDL) y de la presión arterial en los pacientes con enfermedad coronaria establecida tienen un profundo impacto en la progresión de la placa aterosclerótica. Todo ello anuncia un cambio de paradigma en el que se considera la regresión de la placa como objetivo potencial para el desarrollo de estrategias preventivas

Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) has emerged as a powerful imaging modality for the assessment of the arterial wall and it's response to the accumulation of atherosclerotic plaque. The ability to image the coronary arteries on a serial basis provides a unique opportunity for IVUS to monitor the impact that potential anti-atherosclerotic strategies exert on plaque burden. As a result, studies incorporating serial IVUS imaging as the primary endpoint have demonstrated that therapeutic strategies that modify LDL, HDL and blood pressure in patients with established coronary artery disease can have a profound impact on the progression of atherosclerotic plaque. This heralds a paradigm shift that emphasizes plaque regression as a potential target in the development of preventive strategies