Poirier's facet in past human populations from Radom (14th-17th and 18th-19th centuries).

Femoral head-neck defects are commonly reported in the anatomical and anthropological literature. The best-known types are Poirier's facet and Allen's fossa; however, their aetiology and definition are still debated. The aim of this study was to analyse the frequency of Poirier's facet in the skeletal population from Radom (Poland, 14th-19th century). Additionally, a comparison of Poirier's facet prevalence in two chronological periods (the populations from Radom during the 14th-17th century and the 18th-19th century) was done. The femora of 367 adult individuals (184 males, 140 females, 43 unknown sex) from the osteological collections from Radom (14th-19th century) (Poland) were analysed according to the frequency of Poirier's facet. In the Late Medieval population from Radom (14th-17th century), Poirier's facet was noted in 33% of individuals, while in Radom individuals from 18th-19th century, Poirier's facet was observed in 34%. In the analysed skeletal group, Poirier's facet was usually observed on both femoral bones. Males from 18th-19th century had more occasions of Poirier's facet observed compared to the 14th-17th century males, while in females, Poirier's facet was slightly more frequently observed in 14th-17th century Radom individuals. There were not statistically significant differences in the Poirier's facet frequencies between males and females in Radom from the 14th-17th century (38% in males, 29% in females). In the Medieval and Modern skeletal series from Radom (18th-19th), males had significantly higher frequencies (44%) of this skeletal trait compared to females (18%). It could be hypothesised that 18th-19th century Radom males engaged in more demanding physical activity than females. Poor knowledge about Poirier's facet aetiology, insufficient archaeological and historical knowledge about the Radom individuals' lifestyle, and a small sample size from the 14th-17th Radom sample do not allow for drawing such unambiguous conclusions, and further analyses are needed.

Virus-Mediated Inhibition of Apoptosis in the Context of EBV-Associated Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Perspectives.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), the representative of the Herpesviridae family, is a pathogen extensively distributed in the human population. One of its most characteristic features is the capability to establish latent infection in the host. The infected cells serve as a sanctuary for the dormant virus, and therefore their desensitization to apoptotic stimuli is part of the viral strategy for long-term survival. For this reason, EBV encodes a set of anti-apoptotic products. They may increase the viability of infected cells and enhance their resistance to chemotherapy, thereby contributing to the development of EBV-associated diseases, including Burkitt's lymphoma (BL), Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL), gastric cancer (GC), nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and several other malignancies. In this paper, we have described the molecular mechanism of anti-apoptotic actions of a set of EBV proteins. Moreover, we have reviewed the pro-survival role of non-coding viral transcripts: EBV-encoded small RNAs (EBERs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), in EBV-carrying malignant cells. The influence of EBV on the expression, activity and/or intracellular distribution of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) protein family members, has been presented. Finally, we have also discussed therapeutic perspectives of targeting viral anti-apoptotic products or their molecular partners.

Osteoarthritis in past human populations from Radom (14th-17th and 18th-19th century).

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a widespread skeletal condition in the historical population, but it still raises many methodological and interpretative problems. The present study aimed to examine the osteoarthritic changes (osteophytes, porosity, eburnation) in the skeletal material from Radom (14th-19th century) (Poland), enriching knowledge about osteoarthritis and its prevalence in the past. Additionally, a comparison of OA changes prevalence in two chronological periods (the population from Radom during the 14th-17th century versus the 18th-19th century) was done. In the Late Medieval (14th-17th century) population from Radom, osteoarthritic changes were observed in 22% of individuals (males, 18%; females, 29%) and in the Modern Period Radom (18th-19th century) in 25% individuals (males, 25.7%; females, 26.5%). In both skeletal samples, the greatest number of OA changes was recorded in the hip and elbow. Knee and ankle were the least affected joints. Osteophytes were the most frequently observed type of lesions, while eburnation was the least frequent. Although the higher prevalence of osteoarthritis in the Modern Period in Radom is noted, the differences are not statistically significant. Taking the multifactorial etiology of osteoarthritic changes, and the fact that osteoarthritis, as a single indicator of health, could not tell much about the overall lifestyle of past human populations, one must be caution when drawing unambiguous conclusions according to the simple, linear effect of environmental changes on osteoarthritic changes formation.

Are entheseal changes and cross-sectional properties associated with the shape of the upper limb?

OBJECTIVES: Reconstruction of the activity of past human populations can be carried out using various skeletal markers; however, the relationship between these methods is not fully understood. Therefore, the main aim of this article is to analyze the relationship between entheseal changes, cross-sectional properties, and variability in the shape of the upper limb. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The analyzed material consisted of CT images of 71 right scapulae, humeri, and ulnae belonging to the same individuals from a mediaeval population located in Poland. For each series of bones for the same individual, skeletal markers such as: cross-sectional properties, entheses and shape variation were assessed. Next, correlations between these three skeletal indicators were calculated. RESULTS: In general, the models showed that only sex influences entheses. Multivariate regression revealed significant correlation only between ulnar auricular surface shape and two types of mean score for entheses. DISCUSSION: The findings are inconsistent and stand in contradiction to other research; therefore, we suggest that an assessment of individual activity should be carried out, using as many post-cranial elements as possible and a variety of methods. This approach will ensure more accurate reconstruction of the activity levels and patterns of archeological groups.

Relationships between osteoarthritic changes (osteophytes, porosity, eburnation) based on historical skeletal material.

Background: Three main diagnostic types of osteoarthritic changes are distinguished in clinical and anthropological literature: osteophytes, porosity, and eburnation. The nature of the relationship between these changes and how lesions progress over time is still unclear.Aim: The aim of the present study is the analysis of the relationships between osteophytes, porosity, and eburnation based on skeletal material.Subjects and methods: The analysis employed the skeletal collection from Cedynia (199 individuals) from tenth to fourteenth-century Poland. Marginal osteophytes (OP), porosity (POR), and eburnation (EB) were examined on a shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle.Results: Osteophytes and porosity occurred independently of each other. Combinations of osteophytes and porosity (OP + POR) and osteophytes, porosity, and eburnation (OP + POR + EB) were rarely observed. Combinations of osteophytes and eburnation (OP + EB) or porosity and eburnation (POR + EB) were not found. There was a significant correlation between osteophytes and porosity in the scapula, proximal end of the ulna and proximal end of the femur. Osteophytes and eburnation were correlated at the distal end of the ulna. Porosity and eburnation were correlated at the distal end of the radius and distal end of the ulna. When all joints were considered together, all the types of osteoarthritic changes were correlated. However, the relationship between osteophytes and eburnation and between porosity and eburnation was only slightly significant. Osteophytes preceded porosity, but there were a few cases where more developed porosity accompanied less developed osteophytes.Conclusions: The findings indicate that correlations between osteoarthritic changes are weak, albeit statistically significant and further studies of the relationship between changes are necessary.

"Bone former" hypothesis based on the selected medieval and early modern skeletal population from Poland.

According to the "bone former" hypothesis, individuals may prone to new bone formation (osteophytes) in response to stress. Not many studies have addressed the bone formation conundrum, and previous findings are not unanimous. Determining the validity of the "bone former" concept is crucial for the reliable interpretation of osteophytes in past skeletal populations. This study set out to demonstrate that a relationship exists between vertebral and extravertebral osteophytes. The bone material used in the study came from the late medieval, early modern (14th to 16th century) population from Lekno (Poland), and included the skeletons of 188 adults (110 males, 56 females). Marginal osteophytes were scored in the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee and ankle. Vertebral osteophytes were analysed on the upper and lower margins of the vertebral body. The results showed that vertebral osteophytes were correlated with osteophytes in the shoulder (r = 0.578, p = 0.003), elbow (r = 0.416, p = 0.034), wrist (r = 0.619, p = 0.001), hip (r = 0.411, p = 0.024), and all the joints combined (r = 0.446, p = 0.014). Significant relationships between vertebral and extravertebral osteophytes were noted in the female group. It can be claimed that individuals are predicted/or not to be bone formers but whether these bone changes occur depends on the individual lifespan.

Osteoarthritis: A problematic disease in past human populations. A dependence between entheseal changes, body size, age, sex, and osteoarthritic changes development.

Osteoarthritis is a problematic trait in terms of etiology and interpretation in past human populations. The relationships between osteoarthritic changes (osteophytes, porosity, and eburnation) and entheseal changes, body mass, stature, bone massiveness, sex, and age on the basis of skeletal material from Lekno (Poland) are analyzed here. Entheses were the strongest contributor to the prediction of osteophyte expression and when all types of changes and all joints were taken together. Stature demonstrates a negative dependence on porosity. When each joint was analyzed separately, entheses were the strongest contributor to the prediction of arthritis expression in the wrist and hip. Age was the strongest contributor to the prediction of arthritis expression in the elbow. Body mass, stature, bone massiveness, and sex had no effect on osteoarthritic changes in any of the examined joints. The results of the present study suggest an important dependence between entheses and osteoarthritic changes. Other factors had little to no effect on differences in OA severity. These results do not dispel all doubts but enrich knowledge about the effect of etiological factors on osteoarthritic change formation. This knowledge is essential for proper, reliable interpretation of osteoarthritic changes in the context of past human biology, ecology, and behavior.

The mechanical hypothesis of septal aperture formation tested in an early medieval population from Ostrów Lednicki (Poland).

The aetiology of septal aperture formation is still an open question. The influence of bone robusticity, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, and the size and shape of ulnar processes has been discussed. Some researchers have shown that weaker muscles lead to greater joint hypermobility, the impingement of ulnar processes on the humeral lamina, and, consequently, septal aperture formation. Assuming this theory is correct, the question is whether flexion or extension or both play a role in septal lamina perforation. The aim of the study was to examine the mechanical hypothesis of septal aperture formation in samples of skeletal material derived from an early medieval cemetery in Ostrów Lednicki (Poland). A total of 136 pairs of bones (humeri and ulnae) were examined. Septal aperture was scored as present or absent. Entheseal changes in ulna were used as markers of activity patterns, especially involving elbow extension and flexion. Entheseal changes were assessed based on a three-point rating scale. A significant negative correlation between septal aperture and triceps muscles was noted in right bones in females (τ = -0.331) and in both sexes combined (τ = -0.322). The relationship between septal aperture and the brachialis muscle was positive but non-significant. This means that looser triceps lead to greater looseness of the elbow, greater protrusion of the olecranon process, and consequent septal aperture formation. Different results were obtained for the brachialis, which may suggest that forearm flexion does not significantly affect septal lamina perforation.

Geometric morphometrics: does the appearance of the septal aperture depend on the shape of ulnar processes?

Many theories have been suggested to explain the etiology of septal apertures (SA) of the humerus. The influence of genes, the size of ulnar processes, joint laxity, and bone robusticity, have been discussed; however, the problem has not yet been solved. The main aim of this study was to examine the influence of ulnar and humeri shape on septal aperture formation, using geometric morphometric analyses. Skeletal material from an early-mediaeval cemetery located in Western Poland was used. The material comprised two groups: (1) ulnae and humeri with septal apertures, (2) ulnae and humeri without septal apertures. From a CT image, three-dimensional reconstructions were obtained for all bones. Then, 25 landmarks were distributed on each proximal end of the ulnae and 30 landmarks on the distal ends of the humeri. Shape differences between ulnae in joints with and without SA were significant for the left and right sides of the body. The shapes of the left and right distal ends of humeri with SA differed significantly from those without SA. Similar results were obtained for the right side of the body. Ulnae from joints with SA were characterized by a more pronounced olecranon process, a smaller articulated coronoid process and a more tightly curved trochlear notch than ulnae from joints without SA. Humeri with SA included wider and deeper olecranon fossae and smaller and less curved articular surfaces. These results partly coincide with the results of other research indicating the influence of olecranon processes on lamina perforation.

Is vertebral body osteophytosis a reliable indicator of occupational stress?

Whether activity patterns cause vertebral body osteophytosis (VO) remains unanswered. Although, many previous researchers indicate physical activity as an etiological factor of VO, a number of recent studies have questioned this conclusion. Thus, using a sample of 101 adult males from medieval Poland, this current study examines whether individuals with VO have greater entheseal change (EC) scores since EC are commonly used as an indicator of activity. The sample was divided into younger adults (20 to 40 years old) and older adults (41 to 56 years old). Three aggregate variables (aggregate VO, upper limb ECs, and lower limb ECs) were created to determine whether VO may be useful in activity pattern reconstructions. No significant age differences were found and, thus, all correlations were run without age controls. A significant positive correlation was found between aggregate VO and lower limb EC (rho = 0.347, p < 0.01). The existence of the correlation between aggregate VO and lower limb EC in this study implies that vertebral osteophytosis may relate to occupational stresses and there may be similar etiologies present in VO and EC formation, but there remains much unexplained variance that suggests that VO and EC etiologies are complex.

Variation of musculoskeletal stress markers in the medieval population from Cedynia (Poland)--proposal of standardized scoring method application.

The objective of this paper is: (a) to present a rating scale for the evaluation of the musculoskeletal stress markers; (b) to analyze the medieval population from Cedynia in terms of the degree of expression and frequency of the musculoskeletal stress markers. The presented rating scale was developed based on the variability of the morphology of muscle attachment sites, observed in the skeletal material from Cedynia (102 males and 99 females). The scale encompasses 10 musculoskeletal stress markers located on the scapula, humerus, radius, femur and tibia. The system reflects three degrees (1, 2, 3) of complexity of the muscle attachment sites morphology. The analysis of asymmetry and sexual dimorphism of the musculoskeletal stress markers was made based on the chi2 (Pearson) statistics or chi2 statistics for 2 x 2 tables. Moderate degree (2) of muscle attachment site complexity is the most frequent degree of musculoskeletal stress markers development in the population from Cedynia. Low (1) and high (3) complexity of muscle attachment site are the most seldom observed categories. No statistically significant differences between the frequencies of the musculoskeletal stress markers on the bones of the right and left side of the skeleton were noted in females. Also in males the differences found were not statistically significant. Only in the case of deltoid tuberosity (H2) p = 0.052 oscillating around the threshold value may suggest existence of a statistically significant difference in the degree of expression of this stress marker on the bone of the right and left side of the skeleton. On the bones of the right side of the skeleton dimorphic differences were observed in the glenoid tuberosity (S2), bicipital groove (H1), pronator teres origin (R2), tibial tuberosity (T1), soleal crest (T2) and linea aspera (F2). On the bones of the left side of the skeleton dimorphic differences were noted for the bicipital groove (H1), pronator teres origin (R2) and glenoid tuberosity (S2).

Body mass reconstruction on the basis of selected skeletal traits.

The objective of this paper is: to estimate the body mass of the skeletons with the mechanical method (femoral head body mass estimation method--FH) and non-mechanical method (stature/living bi-iliac breadth body mass estimation method--ST/LBIB); to compare the reliability and potential use of results obtained with both methods. The material (46 skeletons, 26 males, 20 females) used in the study came from the medieval burial ground in Cedynia, Poland. Body mass reconstruction according to non-mechanical method was made using equations proposed by Ruff et al. (2005). Body mass estimation based on the mechanical method was calculated using formulas proposed by Ruff et al. (1995). In the mechanical body mass reconstruction method, femoral superoinferior breadth was used. Reconstruction of body weight using the non-mechanical method was based on maximum pelvic breadth and reconstructed body height. The correlation between bi-iliac breadth and femoral head measurements and the correlation between femoral head and reconstructed body height were also calculated. The significance of differences between the body mass of male and female individuals was tested with the Mann-Whitney U-test. The significance of differences between body mass values obtained with the mechanical (FH) and the non-mechanical method (ST/ LBIB) was tested using Pearson's correlation. The same test was used for the calculation of the relationship between bi-iliac breadth and femoral head measurements and between femoral head and reconstructed body height. In contrast to females, in males there is no statistically significant correlation between body mass estimated with the mechanical method (FH) and the non-mechanical method (ST/LBIB). In both sexes there was not statistically significant correlation between bi-iliac breadth and femoral head measurements. Only in the females group the correlation between femoral head and reconstructed body height was statistically significant. It is worth to continue the research. The obtained results would be a valuable contribution to the knowledge on body mass reconstruction methods.

Shape and size of the body vs. musculoskeletal stress markers.

The objective of this paper is to assess the relationship between the degree of development of muscle attachment sites (musculoskeletal stress markers - MSM1) and the length and circumference measurements of long bones and the body build expressed with the reconstructed values of body height (BH) and body mass (BM). The bone material (102 male and 99 female skeletons) used in the study was collected in the medieval burial ground in Cedynia, Poland. The authors analyzed 10 musculoskeletal stress markers located on the scapula (2), humerus (2), radius (2), femur (2) and tibia (2). The frequency and the degree of expression of muscle attachment size was carried out using the scale prepared by Myszka (2007). The scale encompassed three degrees of expression of muscle attachment size. Only changes of robusticity type (nonpathological changes) were taken into account. The assessment of body build of individuals was carried out according to the method proposed by Vancata & Charvátová (2001). Body height was reconstructed from the length of the humerus and femur using eight equations. Body mass was reconstructed from the measurements of the breadth of the proximal and distal sections of the femur and tibia (mechanical method) using twenty one equations. The equations were developed for different reference populations. The same equations were used for men and women. The correlation between the MSM and the length and circumference measurements of the bones was analyzed using the principal components analysis and the Gamma correlation coefficient. The strength of the correlation between the reconstructed body build traits (BH, BM) and the moderate degree of musculoskeletal stress markers expression was studied based on the principal components method and the Pearson correlation coefficient. A linear correlation was found between musculoskeletal stress markers and the circumference measurements and the reconstructed body mass, but no relationship with body height and the length measurements of long bones was revealed. From previous research it is evident that the relationship between the MSM and metric skeletal traits does not occur in every population. Divergent findings necessitate further corroboration of results on diverse skeletal material.