Forensic parasitology: a new frontier in criminalistics.

Parasites are ubiquitous, diverse, and have close interactions with humans and other animals. Despite this, they have not garnered significant interest from forensic scientists, and their utility as indicators in criminal investigations has been largely overlooked. To foster the development of forensic parasitology we explore the utility of parasites as forensic indicators in five broad areas: (i) wildlife trafficking and exploitation, (ii) biological attacks, (iii) sex crimes, (iv) criminal neglect of humans and other animals, and (v) indicators of movement and travel. To encourage the development and growth of forensic parasitology as a field, we lay out a four-step roadmap to increase the use and utility of parasites in criminal investigations.

Unraveling the phylogenetics of genetically closely related species, Haemaphysalis japonica and Haemaphysalis megaspinosa, using entire tick mitogenomes and microbiomes.

Ticks have a profound impact on public health. Haemaphysalis is one of the most widespread genera in Asia, including Japan. The taxonomy and genetic differentiation of Haemaphysalis spp. is challenging. For instance, previous studies struggled to distinguish Haemaphysalis japonica and Haemaphysalis megaspinosa due to the dearth of nucleotide sequence polymorphisms in widely used barcoding genes. The classification of H. japonica japonica and its related sub-species Haemaphysalis japonica douglasi or Haemaphysalis jezoensis is also confused due to their high morphological similarity and a lack of molecular data that support the current classification. We used mitogenomes and microbiomes of H. japonica and H. megaspinosa to gain deeper insights into the phylogenetic relationships and genetic divergence between two species. Phylogenetic analyses of concatenated nucleotide sequences of protein-coding genes and ribosomal DNA genes distinguished H. japonica and H. megaspinosa as monophyletic clades, with further subdivision within the H. japonica clade. The 16S rRNA and NAD5 genes were valuable markers for distinguishing H. japonica and H. megaspinosa. Population genetic structure analyses indicated that genetic variation within populations accounted for a large proportion of the total variation compared to variation between populations. Microbiome analyses revealed differences in alpha and beta diversity between H. japonica and H. megaspinosa: H. japonica had the higher diversity. Coxiella sp., a likely endosymbiont, was found in both Haemaphysalis species. The abundance profiles of likely endosymbionts, pathogens, and commensals differed between H. japonica and H. megaspinosa: H. megaspinosa was more diverse.

Intra- and interspecies variation and population dynamics of Fasciola gigantica among ruminants in Sudan.

Fasciola gigantica is a widespread parasite that causes neglected disease in livestock worldwide. Its high transmissibility and dispersion are attributed to its ability to infect intermediate snail hosts and adapt to various mammalian definitive hosts. This study investigated the variation and population dynamics of F. gigantica in cattle, sheep, and goats from three states in Sudan. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (ND1) genes were sequenced successfully to examine intra and interspecific differences. ND1 exhibited higher diversity than COI, with 15 haplotypes and 10 haplotypes, respectively. Both genes had high haplotype diversity but low nucleotide diversity, with 21 and 11 polymorphic sites for ND1 and COI, respectively. Mismatch distribution analysis and neutrality tests revealed that F. gigantica from different host species was in a state of population expansion. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic trees and median networks revealed that F. gigantica in Sudan and other African countries had host-specific and country-specific lineages for both genes. The study also indicated that F. gigantica-infected small ruminants were evolutionarily distant, suggesting deep and historical interspecies adaptation.

Nation-wide surveillance of ticks (Acari: Argasidae) on bats (Chiroptera) in Singapore.

Bats and ticks are important sources of zoonotic pathogens. Therefore, understanding the diversity, distribution, and ecology of both groups is crucial for public health preparedness. Soft ticks (Argasidae) are a major group of ectoparasites commonly associated with bats. The multi-host life cycle of many argasids make them important vectors of pathogens. Over nine years (2011-2020), surveillance was undertaken to identify the ticks associated with common bats in Singapore. During this period, the bat tick Ornithodoros batuensis was detected within populations of two cave roosting bat species: Eonycteris spelaea and Penthetor lucasi. We examined the relationship between bat species, roosting behaviour, and probability of O. batuensis infestation. We also estimated the relationship between bat life history variables (body condition index, sex, and age) on the probability of infestation and tick count. This represents the first detection of O. batuensis and the genus Ornithodoros within Singapore. We also provide evidence of the continued persistence of Argas pusillus in Singapore with the second local record.

A survey of gastrointestinal helminth infestation in smallholder backyard pigs and the first molecular identification of the two zoonotic helminths Ascaris suum and Trichuris suis in Myanmar.

BACKGROUND: Parasitic infestations have a substantial economic impact on pig production. This study aimed to investigate the gastrointestinal (GI) helminths in pigs and to molecularly characterise two important nematodes, Ascaris and Trichuris species. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 500 pig faecal samples were collected from small holder backyard pig farms in five townships within Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar. Microscopic examination was conducted to estimate the prevalence of GI helminth infestation in the pigs. DNA extraction and PCR were performed on faecal samples that were morphologically positive for Ascaris and Trichuris eggs. Molecular analysis was then conducted to characterise A. suum and T. suis, the most common and zoonotic helminths. RESULTS: According to microscopic examination, 69.2% (346/500) were positive for GI helminth eggs. The GI helminth species observed were A. suum, Strongyle, Strongyloides spp., T. suis, Metastrongylus spp., Hyostrongylus spp., Fasciolopsis spp., Paragonimus spp., and Schistosoma spp., with occurrences of 34.8%, 29.6%, 21.4%, 20.0%, 4.0%, 1.6%, 1.0%, 1.0%, and 0.4%, respectively. Mixed infections of GI helminths were noted in 31.0% of the samples. Overall, sampled pigs excreted mostly low levels (< 100 EPG) or moderate levels (> 100-500 EPG) of GI helminth eggs. The highest mean EPG for each parasite species was noted in A. suum. The presence of A. suum and T. suis was confirmed molecularly. The sequences of the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region of A. suum showed high similarity with previously reported sequences. Likewise, the sequences of T. suis exhibited high similarity with the sequences reported from humans and pigs. Age was noted as an associated factor (P < 0.05) for GI helminth infection status. CONCLUSIONS: In this report, A. suum and T. suis were molecularly identified for the first time in Myanmar. It is important to extend the information among the farmers to be aware of the necessity of preventing zoonotic parasites by practicing regular deworming, proper use of anthelmintics and maintaining hygienic conditions in their pig farms.

Dermacentor (Indocentor) auratus Supino 1897: Potential geographic range, and medical and veterinary significance.

Dermacentor (Indocentor) auratus Supino, 1897 occurs in many regions of Southeast Asia and South Asia. In many regions of Southeast Asia and South Asia, targeted tick sampling and subsequent screening of collected D. auratus ticks have detected pathogenic bacteria and viruses in D. auratus. These disease-causing pathogens that have been detected in D. auratus include Anaplasma, Bartonella, Borrelia, Rickettsia (including spotted fever group rickettsiae), African swine fever virus, Lanjan virus, and Kyasanur forest disease virus. Although D. auratus predominantly infests wild pigs, this tick is also an occasional parasite of humans and other animals. Indeed, some 91 % of human otoacariasis cases in Sri Lanka were due to infestation by D. auratus. With the propensity of this tick to feed on multiple species of hosts, including humans, and the detection of pathogenic bacteria and viruses from this tick, D. auratus is a tick of medical, veterinary, and indeed zoonotic concern. The geographic range of this tick, however, is not well known. Therefore, in the present paper, we used the species distribution model, BIOCLIM, to project the potential geographic range of D. auratus, which may aid pathogen and tick-vector surveillance. We showed that the potential geographic range of D. auratus is far wider than the current geographic distribution of this tick, and that regions in Africa, and in North and South America seem to have suitable climates for D. auratus. Interestingly, in Southeast Asia, Borneo and Philippines also have suitable climates for D. auratus, but D. auratus has not been found in these regions yet despite the apparent close proximity of these regions to Mainland Southeast Asia, where D. auratus occurs. We thus hypothesize that the geographic distribution of D. auratus is largely dependent on the movement of wild pigs and whether or not these wild pigs are able to overcome dispersal barriers. We also review the potential pathogens and the diseases that may be associated with D. auratus and provide an updated host index for this tick.

Insights from entire mitochondrial genome sequences into the phylogeny of ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Archaeocroton with the elevation of the subgenus Alloceraea Schulze, 1919 back to the status of a genus.

We used entire mitochondrial (mt) genome sequences (14.5-15 kbp) to resolve the phylogeny of the four main lineages of the Haematobothrion ticks: Alloceraea, Archaeocroton, Bothriocroton and Haemaphysalis. In our phylogenetic trees, Alloceraea was the sister to Archaeocroton sphenodonti, a tick of an archetypal reptile, the tuatara, from New Zealand, to the exclusion of the rest of the species of Haemaphysalis. The mt genomes of all four of the Alloceraea species that have been sequenced so far had a substantial insert, 132-312 bp, between the tRNA-Glu (E) gene and the nad1 gene in their mt genomes. This insert was not found in any of the other eight subgenera of Haemaphysalis. The mt genomes of 13 species of Haemaphysalis from NCBI GenBank were added to the most recent data set on Haemaphysalis and its close relatives to help resolve the phylogeny of Haemaphysalis, including five new subgenera of Haemaphysalis not previously considered by other authors: Allophysalis (structurally primitive), Aboimisalis (structurally primitive), Herpetobia (structurally intermediate), Ornithophysalis (structurally advanced) and Segalia (structurally advanced). We elevated Alloceraea Schulze, 1919 to the status of genus because Alloceraea Schulze, 1919 is phylogenetically distinct from the other subgenera of Haemaphysalis. Moreover, we propose that the subgenus Allophysalis is the sister to the rest of the Haemaphysalis (14 subgenera) and that the 'structurally primitive' subgenera Hoogstraal and Kim comprise early diverging lineages. Our matrices of the pairwise genetic difference (percent) of mt genomes and partial 16S rRNA sequences indicated that the mt genome sequence of Al. kitaokai (gb# OM368280) may not be Al. kitaokai Hoogstraal, 1969 but rather another species of Alloceraea. In a similar way, the mt genome sequence of H. (Herpetobia) nepalensis Hoogstraal, 1962 (gb# NC_064124) was only 2% genetically different to that of H. (Allophysalis) tibetensis Hoogstraal, 1965 (gb# OM368293): this indicates to us that they are the same species. Alloceraea cretacea may be better placed in a genus other than Alloceraea Schulze, 1919. Reptiles may have been the host to the most recent common ancestor of Archaeocroton and Alloceraea.

A filarial parasite potentially associated with the health burden on domestic chickens in Japan.

Chickens in free-range environments are at risk of exposure to various pathogens, such as filarioids transmitted via hematophagous vectors. However, the study of filarioids in poultry has been largely neglected compared to the extensive studies focused on viruses, bacteria, and protozoa. Here, we performed histological and molecular investigations of the filarioids detected in domestic chickens from two different flocks in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. In the first case, adult worms were present in the pulmonary artery and right ventricle, and microfilariae were present in multiple organs of deceased chickens. In the second case, similar filarioids were detected in the organs and blood of one necropsied layer. Phylogenetic analysis using 18S rRNA gene fragments positioned the filarioid in the same clade as that of Onchocercidae sp., previously identified in a deceased chicken from Chiba Prefecture, Japan, that is located 500 km away from Hiroshima Prefecture. Based on 28S rRNA and mitochondrial COI gene fragments, the filarioid was positioned distinctly from previously reported genera of avian filarioids. These results suggest that the filarioids are potentially associated with the health burden on domestic chickens and belong to the genus Paronchocerca. Furthermore, we developed a nested PCR assay targeting mitochondrial COI and detected the parasite DNA from the biting midge Culicoides arakawae captured near the flock, suggesting that it serves as a vector. Our findings fill the knowledge gap regarding avian filarioids, laying the groundwork for future studies examining the epidemiology, life cycle, and species diversity of this neglected parasite group.

The first cryptic genus of Ixodida, Cryptocroton n. gen. for Amblyomma papuanum Hirst, 1914: a tick of North Queensland, Australia, and Papua New Guinea.

We describe a new genus Cryptocroton n. gen. for Amblyomma papuanum Hirst, 1914, a tick of North Queensland, Australia, and Papua New Guinea.

Experimental demonstration of the transmission of Spiroplasma between different arthropod taxa.

Spiroplasma (Mycoplasmatales: Spiroplasmataceae) is one of the most widely distributed symbionts of arthropods. Spiroplasma species can infect their hosts via vertical or horizontal transmission. However, the mode of transmission of Spiroplasma between different arthropod taxa has not been elucidated. In this study, we investigated the potential for the transmission of Spiroplasma to non-native arthropod species, using 2 Spiroplasma spp. isolated from ticks, namely Spiroplasma ixodetis and Spiroplasma mirum, and 3 species of mosquito laboratory colonies, namely Aedes albopictus, Aedes aegypti, and Culex pipiens pallens (Diptera: Culicidae). After feeding the adult mosquitoes with Spiroplasma-containing artificial meals, they were kept at 25 °C for 10 days. Homogenates prepared from Spiroplasma-fed mosquitoes were used to re-isolate Spiroplasma using the in vitro culture method. Nine weeks after culture initiation, the presence of Spiroplasma was tested using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results revealed that only S. ixodetis was detected from all 3 species of mosquitoes and re-isolated from 2 of them. The differences in the infection ability of different Spirolasma species could be attributed to several factors, including environmental effects. Nevertheless, this is the first experimental demonstration of Spiroplasma transmission among different arthropod taxa. Further studies are needed to elucidate the evolutionary mechanism that supports the survival of Spiroplasma in nature.

Exploring genetic diversity and variation of Ovar-DRB1 gene in Sudan Desert Sheep using targeted next-generation sequencing.

INTRODUCTION: The Ovar-DRB1 gene, a crucial element of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Class II region, initiates adaptive immunity by presenting antigens to T-cells. Genetic diversity in sheep, particularly in MHC Class II genes like Ovar-DRB1, directly influences the specturm of presented antigens impacting immune responses and disease susceptability. Understanding the allelic diversity of Ovar-DRB1 gene in Sudan Desert Sheep (SDS) is essential for uncovering the genetic basis of immune responses and disease resistance, given the the breeds significance in Sudan's unique environment. METHODS: Utilizing Targeted Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) we explore allelic diversity in Ovar-DRB1 gene within SDS. Successfully ampliying and and sequencing the second exon of this gene in 288 SDS samples representing six breeds provided a comprehensive allelic profile, enabling a detalied examination of the gene's genetic makeup. RESULTS: We identifed forty-six alleles, including four previously unreported, enrichness the genetic diversity of SDS breeds. These alleles exhibiting non-uniform distribution, varying frequencies across breeds, indicating a breed-specific genetic landscape. Certain alleles, known and novel, show higher frequencies in specific populations, suggesting potential associations with adaptive immune responses. Identifying these alleles sets the stage for investigating their functional roles and implications for disease resistance. Genetic differentiation among SDS breeds, as indicated by FST values and clustering analyses, highlights a unique genetic makeup shaped by geographic and historical factors. These differentiation patterns among SDS breeds have broader implications for breed conservation and targeted breeding to enhance disease resistance in specific populations. CONCLUSION: This study unveils Ovar-DRB1 gene allelic diversity in SDS breeds through targeted NGS and genetic analyses, revealing new alleles that underscore the breeds' unique genetic profile. Insights into the genetic factors governing immune responses and disease resistance emerge, promising for optimization of breeding strategies for enhanced livestock health in Sudan's unique environment.

Molecular Identification of Aedes, Armigeres, and Culex Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) Using Mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase Subunit I Genes in Myanmar.

PURPOSE: Mosquitoes are important vectors that carry disease-causing agents that can affect humans and animals. DNA barcoding is a complementary identification which can be used to validate morphological characterization of mosquito species. The objectives of this study were to identify the mitochondrial sequence of the COI gene and to construct a molecular phylogeny based on the genetic divergence of the mosquito species studied. METHODS: In this study, DNA extraction and the amplification of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I genes (COI) were performed on pooled mosquito samples collected in Nay Pyi Taw area, Myanmar. RESULTS: Fragments of the COI gene showed 99-100% identity with sequences of Aedes aegypti, Armigeres subalbatus, Culex pipiens complex, and Cx. quinquefasciatus, respectively, deposited in GenBank. This study categorized two haplotypes from each Ar. subalbatus and Cx. pipiens complex COI gene sequence, as well as three haplotypes from Cx. quinquefasciatus COI gene sequences. The highest haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity were observed in the Ar. subalbatus population (Hd = 1.0000; π = 0.0033), followed by the Cx. pipiens complex and Cx. quinquefasciatus populations. CONCLUSION: This study provides useful information on the molecular identification and genetic diversity of mosquito vectors with medical and veterinary significance, which may assist in the improvement of mosquito control programs.

Mitogenomic exploration supports the historical hypothesis of anthropogenic diffusion of a zoonotic parasite Echinococcus multilocularis.

Animal movement across regions owing to human activity can lead to the introduction of pathogens, resulting in disease epidemics with medical and socioeconomic significance. Here, we validated the hypothesis that human activity, such as the transportation of infected animals, has played a significant role in introducing the zoonotic parasite Echinococcus multilocularis into Hokkaido, Japan, by synthesizing and evaluating parasite genetic data in light of historical records. Our analysis indicates that a major genetic group in Hokkaido originated from St. Lawrence Island, USA, which is in accordance with the route suggested by historical descriptions. Moreover, we identified a minor genetic group closely related to parasites found in Sichuan, China. This fact implies that parasite invasion in Japan may result from complex and inadvertent animal translocations. These findings emphasize the anthropogenic impacts on zoonotic parasite spread and provide a crucial perspective for preventing future potential epidemics.

Host, season, habitat and climatic factors as drivers of Asian rodent tick (Ixodes granulatus) (Acari: Ixodidae) occurrence and abundance in Southeast Asia.

The Asian rodent tick (Ixodes granulatus) occurs throughout much of Asia, it frequently bites humans, and zoonotic pathogens, such as Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) and Rickettsia honei, have been detected within it. Unfortunately, the ecology of I. granulatus remains poorly known, including drivers of its abundance and the interaction ecology with its sylvatic hosts. To elucidate the ecology of this medically important species, the habitat preferences of I. granulatus were assessed in Singapore and Malaysia. Ixodes granulatus showed strong associations with old forest habitats, though across different age classes of old forest there was limited variation in abundance. Ixodes granulatus was absent from other habitats including young forest, scrubland, and parks/gardens. Within its sylvatic rodent hosts, a range of factors were found to be statistically significant predictors of I. granulatus load and/or infestation risk, including sex and body condition index. Male rodents were significantly more likely to be infested and to have higher loads than females, similarly, animals with a lower body condition index were significantly more likely to be infested. Proactive public health efforts targeted at preventing bites by this tick should carefully consider its ecology to minimise ecological overlap between humans and I. granulatus.

Investigation of vertical and horizontal transmission of Spiroplasma in ticks under laboratory conditions.

Many arthropods harbour bacterial symbionts, which are maintained by vertical and/or horizontal transmission. Spiroplasma is one of the most well-known symbionts of ticks and other arthropods. It is still unclear how Spiroplasma infections have spread in tick populations despite its high prevalence in some tick species. In this study, Ixodes ovatus, which has been reported to harbour Spiroplasma ixodetis at high frequencies, was examined for its vertical transmission potential under experimental conditions. Next, two isolates of tick-derived Spiroplasma, S. ixodetis and Spiroplasma mirum, were experimentally inoculated into Spiroplasma-free Haemaphysalis longicornis colonies and the presence of Spiroplasma in their eggs and larvae was tested. Our experimental data confirmed that S. ixodetis was transmitted to eggs and larvae in a vertical manner in the original host I. ovatus. In the second experiment, there was no significant difference in engorged weight, egg weight, and hatching rate between Spiroplasma-inoculated and control H. longicornis groups. This suggested that Spiroplasma infection does not affect tick reproduction. Spiroplasma DNA was only detected in the eggs and larvae derived from some individuals of S. ixodetis-inoculated groups. This has demonstrated the potential of horizontal transmission between different tick species. These findings may help understand the transmission dynamics of Spiroplasma in nature and its adaptation mechanism to host arthropod species.

The East Indies reptile tick Amblyomma helvolum Koch, 1844 (Acari: Ixodidae), taxonomy, biology and new host records, including the first record of human infestation.

Amblyomma helvolum is a widespread, generalist ectoparasite of reptiles in the oriental region, and has the potential to become highly invasive should it be inadvertently introduced outside its native range through the exotic pet trade. All life stages of A. helvolum are re-characterised morphologically and the first examples of nanism (dwarfism) and gynandromorphy (male and female tissue in one animal) for the species are described. Eighteen new hosts records are presented for A. helvolum, including the first case of human infestation. The taxonomy, distribution, ecology, phenology, disease associations, and invasion biology of the species are also discussed.

Human-biting ticks and zoonotic tick-borne pathogens in North Africa: diversity, distribution, and trans-Mediterranean public health challenges.

North Africa is home to more than 200 million people living across five developing economies (Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) and two Spanish exclaves (Ceuta and Melilla), many of whom are impacted by ticks and tick-borne zoonoses. Populations in Europe are also increasingly vulnerable to North African ticks and tick-borne zoonoses due to a combination of climate change and the movement of ticks across the Mediterranean on migratory birds, human travellers, and trafficked wildlife. The human-biting ticks and tick-borne zoonoses in North Africa are reviewed along with their distribution in the region. We also assess present and future challenges associated with ticks and tick-borne zoonoses in North African and highlight opportunities for collaboration and coordination between governments in Europe and North Africa to address public health challenges posed by North African ticks and tick-borne zoonoses.

The first molecular confirmation of Culex pipiens complex as potential natural vectors of Dirofilaria immitis in Myanmar.

Dirofilariosis, known as one of the most widespread vector-borne zoonotic diseases, is caused by several different species of the nematodes of the genus Dirofilaria, which can be transmitted by Culex, Anopheles and Aedes mosquito vectors. In order to identify key vector mosquitoes of filarial parasites in Myanmar, mosquitoes were collected during three different seasons (summer, rainy and winter) in three townships in Nay Pyi Taw area, Myanmar. DNA extraction and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analyses were conducted for 185 mosquito pools, with each pool containing 1-10 mosquitoes. Dirofilaria immitis was detected in 20 pools of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes. The minimum infection rate of mosquitoes was found to be 16.33. The small subunit ribosomal RNA (12S rDNA) gene targeted PCR revealed that the sequences obtained were completely identical to the sequences of D. immitis derived from dogs in China, Brazil and France. The sequences obtained from mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene PCR exhibited 100% identity with the sequences of D. immitis derived from dogs in Bangladesh, Iran, Japan and Thailand, as well as humans in Iran and Thailand, and mosquitoes in Germany and Hungary. The findings of this study demonstrated that the mosquito species of Cx. pipiens complex are potential mosquito vectors for dirofilariosis in Myanmar.

Genetic variation and demographic history of Sudan desert sheep reveal two diversified lineages.

More than 400 million sheep are raised on the African continent, the majority of which are indigenous and are primarily reared for sustenance. They have effectively adapted to various climatic and production environments, surviving and flourishing. The genetic relationships among these sheep populations remain understudied. Herein, we sequenced the entire mitochondrial DNA control region of 120 animals from Hamary and Kabashi and their crossbreed (Hamary x Kabashi) of Sudan desert sheep (SDS) to understand their maternal-inherited genetic variation and demographic history profiles and relate those to the history of sheep pastoralism on the African continent. The results show a diversified and predominant D- loop haplogroup B (n = 102, 85%), with all other sequences belonging to haplogroup A. Most of the maternal genetic variation was partitioned between haplogroup (76.3%) while within haplogroup accounted for 23.7% of the variation. However, little genetic differentiation was observed among the two breeds and their crosses, with our results supporting a Hamari maternal origin for the crossbreed. Bayesian coalescent-based analysis reveals distinct demographic history between the two haplogroups, two breeds and their crosses. Comparison of the two haplogroup showed that haplogroup B experienced an earlier expansion than haplogroup A. Unlike the breed-based comparison, the expansion of the two breeds started roughly at the same time, around 6500 years ago, with Kabashi having a slightly greater effective population size. The maternal ancestors of SDS may have diverged before their introduction to the African continent. This study provides novel insights into the early history of these two main breeds of Sudan desert sheep and their crosses.