The Influence of Nicotine on Trophoblast-Derived Exosomes in a Mouse Model of Pathogenic Preeclampsia.

Preeclampsia (PE) is a serious complication of pregnancy with a pathogenesis that is not fully understood, though it involves the impaired invasion of extravillous trophoblasts (EVTs) into the decidual layer during implantation. Because the risk of PE is actually decreased by cigarette smoking, we considered the possibility that nicotine, a critical component of tobacco smoke, might protect against PE by modifying the content of exosomes from EVTs. We investigated the effects of nicotine on our PE model mouse and evaluated blood pressure. Next, exosomes were extracted from nicotine-treated extravillous trophoblasts (HTR-8/SVneo), and the peptide samples were evaluated by DIA (Data Independent Acquisition) proteomic analysis following nano LC-MS/MS. Hub proteins were identified using bioinformatic analysis. We found that nicotine significantly reduced blood pressure in a PE mouse model. Furthermore, we identified many proteins whose abundance in exosomes was modified by nicotine treatment of EVTs, and we used bioinformatic annotation and network analysis to select five key hub proteins with potential roles in the pathogenesis or prevention of PE. EVT-derived exosomes might influence the pathogenesis of PE because the cargo delivered by exosomes can signal to and modify the receiving cells and their environment.

Constitutive hydrogen inhalation prevents vascular remodeling via reduction of oxidative stress.

Molecular hydrogen is thought to have an inhibitory effect on oxidative stress, thereby attenuating the onset and progression of various diseases including cardiovascular disease; however, few reports have assessed the preventive effect of constitutive inhalation of hydrogen gas on of vascular remodeling. Here, we investigated the effect of constitutive inhalation of hydrogen gas on vascular neointima formation using a cuff-induced vascular injury mouse model. After constitutive inhalation of compressed hydrogen gas (O2 21%, N2 77.7%, hydrogen 1.3%) or compressed air only (O2 21%, N2 79%) by C57BL/6 mice for 2 weeks from 8 weeks of age in a closed chamber, inflammatory cuff injury was induced by polyethylene cuff placement around the femoral artery under anesthesia, and hydrogen gas administration was continued until sampling of the femoral artery. Neointima formation, accompanied by an increase in cell proliferation, was significantly attenuated in the hydrogen group compared with the control group. NADPH oxidase NOX1 downregulation in response to cuff injury was shown in the hydrogen group, but the expression levels of NADPH oxidase subunits, p40phox and p47phox, did not differ significantly between the hydrogen and control groups. Although the increase in superoxide anion production did not significantly differ between the hydrogen and control groups, DNA damage was decreased as a result of reduction of reactive oxygen species such as hydroxyl radical (⋅OH) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) in the hydrogen group. These results demonstrate that constitutive inhalation of hydrogen gas attenuates vascular remodeling partly via reduction of oxidative stress, suggesting that constitutive inhalation of hydrogen gas at a safe concentration in the living environment could be an effective strategy for prevention of vascular diseases such as atherosclerosis.

A simple mouse model of pericardial adhesions.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative pericardial adhesions are considered a risk factor for redo cardiac surgery. Several large- and medium-size animal models of pericardial adhesions have been reported, but small animal models for investigating the development of anti-adhesion materials and molecular mechanisms of this condition are lacking. In this study, we aimed to establish a simple mouse model of pericardial adhesions to address this gap. METHODS: We administered blood, minocycline, picibanil, and talc into the murine pericardial cavity via one-shot injection. Micro-computed tomography analyses of contrast agent-injected mice were carried out for methodological evaluation. We investigated various dosages and treatment durations for molecules identified to be inducers of pericardial adhesion. The adhesive grade was quantified by scoring the strength and volume of adhesion tissues at sacrificed time points. Histological staining with hematoxylin and eosin and Masson's trichrome, and immunostaining for F4/80 or αSMA was performed to investigate the structural features of pericardial adhesions, and pathological features of the pericardial adhesion tissue were compared with human clinical specimens. RESULTS: Administration of talc resulted in the most extensive pericardial adhesions. Micro-computed tomography imaging data confirmed that accurate injection into the pericardial cavity was achieved. We found the optimal condition for the formation of strong pericardial adhesions to be injection of 2.5 mg/g talc for 2 weeks. Furthermore, histological analysis showed that talc administration led to an invasion of myofibroblasts and macrophages in the pericardial cavity and epicardium, consistent with pathological findings in patients with left ventricular assistive devices. CONCLUSIONS: We successfully established a simple mouse model of talc-induced pericardial adhesions, which mimics human pathology and could contribute to solving the clinical issues related to pericardial adhesions.

Biochemical and histological evidence of deteriorated bioprosthetic valve leaflets: the accumulation of fibrinogen and plasminogen.

Calcification of bioprosthetic valves (BVs) implanted in aortic position can result in gradual deterioration and necessitate aortic valve replacement. The molecular mechanism of calcium deposition on BV leaflets has been investigated, but remains to be fully elucidated. The present study aimed to identify explanted bioprosthetic valve (eBV)-specific proteins using a proteomics approach and to unveil their biochemical and histological involvements in calcium deposition on BV leaflets. Calcification, fibrosis, and glycosylation of the valves were histologically assessed using Von Kossa, Masson's Trichrome and Alcian Blue staining, as well as immunostaining. Protein expression in the explanted biological valves was analysed using proteomics and western blotting. In a histological evaluation, αSMA-positive myofibroblasts were not observed in eBV, whereas severe fibrosis occurred around calcified areas. SDS-PAGE revealed three major bands with considerably increased intensity in BV leaflets that were identified as plasminogen and fibrinogen gamma chain (100 kDa), and fibrinogen beta chain (50 and 37 kDa) by mass analysis. Immunohistochemistry showed that fibrinogen ß-chain was distributed throughout the valve tissue. On the contrary, plasminogen was strongly stained in CD68-positive macrophages, as evidenced by immunofluorescence. The results suggest that two important blood coagulation-related proteins, plasminogen and fibrinogen, might affect the progression of BV degeneration.

Perivascular Adipose Tissue Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor Promotes Vascular Inflammation and Aneurysm Formation.

Perivascular adipose tissue exhibits characteristics of active local inflammation, which contributes to the development of atherosclerotic disease as a complication of obesity/metabolic syndrome. However, the precise role of perivascular adipose tissue in the progression of abdominal aortic aneurysm remains unclear. To test the hypothesis that genetic deletion of angiotensin II type 1a (AT1a) receptor in perivascular visceral adipose tissue (VAT) can attenuate aortic aneurysm formation in apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice, we performed adipose tissue transplantation experiments by using an angiotensin II-induced aneurysm murine model, in which we transplanted VAT from ApoE-/- or ApoE-/- AT1a-/- donor mice onto the abdominal aorta of ApoE-/- recipient mice. Compared with ApoE-/- VAT transplantation, ApoE-/- AT1a-/- VAT transplantation markedly attenuated aortic aneurysm formation, macrophage infiltration, and gelatinolytic activity in the abdominal aorta. AT1a receptor activation led to the polarization of macrophages in perivascular VAT toward the proinflammatory phenotype. Moreover, osteopontin expression and gelatinolytic activity were considerably lower in ApoE-/- AT1a-/- perivascular VAT than in ApoE-/- perivascular VAT, and angiotensin II-induced osteopontin secretion from adipocytes was eliminated after deletion of AT1a receptor in adipocytes. Notably, induction of macrophage migration by conditioned medium from angiotensin II-stimulated wild-type adipocytes was suppressed by treatment with an osteopontin-neutralizing antibody, and ApoE-/- OPN-/- VAT transplantation more potently attenuated aortic aneurysm formation than ApoE-/- VAT transplantation. Our findings indicate a previously unrecognized effect of AT1a receptor in perivascular VAT on the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysm.

Proteomics-based analysis of lung injury-induced proteins in a mouse model of common bile duct ligation.

BACKGROUND: Lung injury is a life-threatening complication in patients with liver dysfunction. We recently provided an experimental lung injury model in mouse with common bile duct ligation. In this study, we aimed to characterize the pathologic and biochemical features of lung tissues in common bile duct ligation mice using a proteomic approach. METHODS: Common bile ducts of BALB/c mice, 8 weeks of age, were ligated operatively. CD31-expressing pulmonary cells were sorted with immunomagnetic microbeads, and protein profiles were examined by 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Based on the results of protein identification, immunohistochemistry and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction were carried out in pulmonary and hepatic tissues. RESULTS: Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis revealed 3 major inflammation-associated proteins exhibiting considerable increases in the number of CD31-positive pulmonary cells after common bile duct ligation. Mass spectrometry analysis identified these proteins as SerpinB1a (48 kDa), ANXA1 (46 kDa), and S100A9 (16 kDa). Furthermore, the 3 proteins were more highly expressed in dilated pulmonary blood vessels of common bile duct ligation mice, in which neutrophils and monocytes were prominent, as shown by immunohistochemistry. More importantly, SerpinB1a mRNA and protein were significantly upregulated in the liver, whereas S100A9 and ANXA1 mRNA and protein were upregulated in the lungs, as shown by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting. CONCLUSION: We identified 3 proteins that were highly expressed in the lung after common bile duct ligation using a proteomics-based approach.

Enhancement of Adipocyte Browning by Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor Blockade.

Browning of white adipose tissue (WAT) has been highlighted as a new possible therapeutic target for obesity, diabetes and lipid metabolic disorders, because WAT browning could increase energy expenditure and reduce adiposity. The new clusters of adipocytes that emerge with WAT browning have been named 'beige' or 'brite' adipocytes. Recent reports have indicated that the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays a role in various aspects of adipose tissue physiology and dysfunction. The biological effects of angiotensin II, a major component of RAS, are mediated by two receptor subtypes, angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) and type 2 receptor (AT2R). However, the functional roles of angiotensin II receptor subtypes in WAT browning have not been defined. Therefore, we examined whether deletion of angiotensin II receptor subtypes (AT1aR and AT2R) may affect white-to-beige fat conversion in vivo. AT1a receptor knockout (AT1aKO) mice exhibited increased appearance of multilocular lipid droplets and upregulation of thermogenic gene expression in inguinal white adipose tissue (iWAT) compared to wild-type (WT) mice. AT2 receptor-deleted mice did not show miniaturization of lipid droplets or alteration of thermogenic gene expression levels in iWAT. An in vitro experiment using adipose tissue-derived stem cells showed that deletion of the AT1a receptor resulted in suppression of adipocyte differentiation, with reduction in expression of thermogenic genes. These results indicate that deletion of the AT1a receptor might have some effects on the process of browning of WAT and that blockade of the AT1 receptor could be a therapeutic target for the treatment of metabolic disorders.

Interferon regulatory factor 1 attenuates vascular remodeling; roles of angiotensin II type 2 receptor.

We previously reported interferon regulatory factor (IRF) 1 plays physiological roles in "growth"-regulated angiotensin II type 2 (AT2) receptor expression in fibroblasts. Here, we investigated whether IRF-1 is involved in attenuation of vascular remodeling in association with AT2 receptor upregulation. Neointimal area in injured artery after 14 days of cuff placement was significantly increased in IRF-1 knockout mice (IRF-1KO) and AT2 receptor knockout mice (AT2KO) compared with wild-type mice (WT: C57BL/6J). Treatment with compound 21 attenuated neointima formation in both WT and IRF-1KO. AT2 receptor mRNA expression after 7 days of cuff placement was significantly decreased in IRF-1KO compared with WT; however, IRF-1 expression did not differ between AT2KO and WT. Apoptotic changes in injured artery after 14 days of cuff placement were significantly attenuated in IRF-1KO, with a decrease in interleukin-1ß-converting enzyme and inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA levels. These results indicate IRF-1 is one of the key transcriptional factors for the prevention of neointimal formation involving AT2 receptors.

Diabetic mice exhibited a peculiar alteration in body composition with exaggerated ectopic fat deposition after muscle injury due to anomalous cell differentiation.

BACKGROUND: Sarcopenic obesity, age-related muscle loss, which is compensated by an increase in fat mass, impairs quality of life in elderly people. Although the increase in intramuscular fat is associated with decreased insulin sensitivity and increased metabolic risk factors, the origin of diabetes-associated intramuscular fat has not been elucidated. Here, we investigated intramuscular fat deposition using a muscle injury model in type 2 diabetic mice. METHODS: Male 8-week-old C57BL/6 and 8-week-old and 26-week-old KKAy underwent intramuscular injection of cardiotoxin (Ctx) (100 µL/10 µM) into the tibialis anterior (TA) muscles. After 2 weeks, the muscles were removed and evaluated. RESULTS: KKAy exhibited impaired muscle regeneration and ectopic fat deposition. Such impairment was more marked in older KKAy. These changes were also observed in another diabetic mouse model, db/db and diet-induced obese mice but not in streptozocin-induced diabetic mice. Deposited fat was platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptor alpha positive and its cytoskeleton was stained with Masson's trichrome, indicating it to be of fibro-adipocyte progenitor cell origin. Expression of a myogenic marker, myoD, was lower and that of PDGF receptor alpha and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein (CEBP) alpha was higher in Ctx-injured TA of KKAy compared with that of C57BL/6. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) was highly expressed in fat-forming lesions in older KKAy. Treatment with all-trans retinoic acid prevented the formation of intramuscular fat; however, treatment with GW9662, a PPARγ antagonist, increased the fibrotic change in muscle. CONCLUSIONS: Diabetic mice showed impaired muscle regeneration with fat deposition, suggesting that diabetes may enhance sarcopenic obesity through a mechanism involving anomalous fibro-adipocyte progenitor cell differentiation.

Synergistic Inhibitory Effect of Rosuvastatin and Angiotensin II Type 2 Receptor Agonist on Vascular Remodeling.

We investigated the possibility that coadministration of rosuvastatin and compound 21 (C21), a selective angiotensin II type 2 (AT2) receptor agonist, could exert synergistic preventive effects on vascular injury. Vascular injury was induced by polyethylene cuff placement on the femoral artery in 9-week-old male C57BL/6J mice. Mice were treated with rosuvastatin and/or with C21 after cuff placement. Neointima formation was determined 14 days after the operation and cell proliferation, and superoxide anion production and expression of inflammatory cytokines were examined 7 days after cuff placement. Neointima formation was significantly attenuated by the treatment of rosuvastatin (5 mg kg(-1) day(-1)) or C21 (10 µg kg(-1) day(-1)), associated with the decreases in proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) labeling index, oxidative stress, and the expression of inflammatory markers. Treatment with a noneffective dose of rosuvastatin (0.5 mg kg(-1) day(-1)) plus a low dose of C21 (1 µg kg(-1) day(-1)) inhibited the PCNA labeling index, superoxide anion production, mRNA expressions of NAD(P)H subunits, and mRNA and protein expressions of inflammatory markers associated with marked inhibition of neointima formation. Angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor mRNA expression did not differ the groups. By contrast, AT2 receptor mRNA expression was increased by administration of C21 at the dose of 10 µg kg(-1) day(-1) but not by C21 at the dose of 1 µg kg(-1) day(-1) or rosuvastatin. The combination of rosuvastatin and AT2 receptor agonist exerted synergistic preventive effects on vascular remodeling associated with the decreases in cell proliferation, oxidative stress, and inflammatory reaction. That could be a powerful approach to vascular disease prevention.

Angiotensin II Type 2 Receptor Inhibits Vascular Intimal Proliferation With Activation of PPARγ.

BACKGROUND: Angiotensin II type 2 (AT2) receptor stimulation could exert beneficial effects on vascular remodeling. Previously, we reported that AT2 receptor stimulation ameliorated insulin resistance in diabetic mice accompanied by PPARγ activation which also plays a variety of crucial roles in the vasculature. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the vascular protective effect of the AT2 receptor with activation of PPARγ involving AT2 receptor-interacting protein (ATIP). METHODS AND RESULTS: Vascular injury was induced by polyethylene-cuff placement around the femoral artery in C57BL/6J mice. Treatment with compound 21 (C21), an AT2 receptor agonist, decreased neointimal formation, cell proliferation, and the mRNA levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin-1ß, and phosphorylation of nuclear factor-kappa B, and increased PPARγ DNA-binding activity in the injured artery, whereas these inhibitory effects of C21 were attenuated by co-treatment with a PPARγ antagonist, GW9662. Treatment of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) with C21 prepared from smAT2 transgenic mice, which highly express the AT2 receptor in VSMC, increased both PPARγ activity and its DNA-binding activity determined by dual-luciferase assay and electrophoresis mobility shift assay (EMSA), respectively. We observed that ATIP was involved in PPARγ complex formation, and that transfection of siRNA of ATIP1 attenuated the AT2 receptor-mediated increase in PPARγ activity in VSMC. In response to AT2 receptor stimulation, ATIP was translocated from the plasma membrane to the nucleus. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a new mechanism by which AT2 receptor stimulation activates PPARγ, thereby resulting in amelioration of vascular intimal proliferation, and that ATIP plays an important role in AT2 receptor-mediated PPARγ activation.

Low-Protein Diet-Induced Fetal Growth Restriction Leads to Exaggerated Proliferative Response to Vascular Injury in Postnatal Life.

BACKGROUND: We investigated the effects of fetal growth restriction (FGR) induced by maternal protein restriction on inflammatory vascular remodeling using a cuff-induced vascular injury mouse model. METHODS: Dams (C57BL/6J strain mice) were fed an isocaloric diet containing 20% protein (normal protein; NP) or 8% protein (low protein; LP) from 10 weeks of age until delivery. On the day of delivery, all dams were returned to the NP diet. After weaning, offspring were fed the NP diet. When offspring were 10 weeks of age, vascular injury was induced by polyethylene cuff placement around the femoral artery. RESULTS: Birth weight in offspring from dams fed LP until delivery (LPO) was significantly lower, but body weight was the same at 2 weeks after birth compared with that in NP offspring (NPO). Arterial blood pressure at 12 weeks of age did not differ between LPO and NPO. Neointima formation was exaggerated in LPO compared with NPO and associated with an increase in cell proliferation assessed by proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) staining index. Moreover, LPO showed enhanced expression of monocyte chemotactic protein-1, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1ß, tumor necrosis factor-α, and production of superoxide anion in the injured artery. Moreover, mRNA expression of isoforms of NAD(P)H oxidase subunits such as p22phox, p40phox, p47phox, p67phox, gp91phpx, and Rac1 in the injured arteries were enhanced in LPO. Furthermore, HIF-1α expression was increased in LPO compared with that in NPO. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that maternal low-protein diet-induced FGR increases susceptibility of the vasculature to postnatal injury.

Deficiency of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 causes deterioration of cognitive function.

The classical renin-angiotensin system (RAS), known as the angiotensin (Ang)-converting enzyme (ACE)/Ang II/Ang II type 1 (AT1) receptor axis, induces various organ damages including cognitive decline. On the other hand, the ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/Mas receptor axis has been highlighted as exerting antagonistic actions against the classical RAS axis in the cardiovascular system. However, the roles of the ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/Mas axis in cognitive function largely remain to be elucidated, and we therefore examined possible roles of ACE2 in cognitive function. Male, 10-week-old C57BL6 (wild type, WT) mice and ACE2 knockout (KO) mice were subjected to the Morris water maze task and Y maze test to evaluate cognitive function. ACE2KO mice exhibited significant impairment of cognitive function, compared with that in WT mice. Superoxide anion production increased in ACE2KO mice, with increased mRNA levels of NADPH oxidase subunit, p22phox, p40phox, p67phox, and gp91phox in the hippocampus of ACE2KO mice compared with WT mice. The protein level of SOD3 decreased in ACE2KO mice compared with WT mice. The AT1 receptor mRNA level in the hippocampus was higher in ACE2KO mice compared with WT mice. In contrast, the AT2 receptor mRNA level in the hippocampus did not differ between the two strains. Mas receptor mRNA was highly expressed in the hippocampus compared with the cortex. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA and protein levels were lower in the hippocampus in ACE2KO mice compared with WT mice. Taken together, ACE2 deficiency resulted in impaired cognitive function, probably at least in part because of enhanced oxidative stress and a decrease in BDNF.

Pre-treatment with LCZ696, an orally active angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor, prevents ischemic brain damage.

Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) are known to prevent ischemic brain damage after stroke. Natriuretic peptides, which are increased by a neprilysin inhibitor, are also reported to protect against brain damage. Therefore, we investigated the possible protective effect of valsartan (VAL) compared with LCZ696 (VAL+ neprilysin inhibitor; 1:1) after middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion. Eight-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were treated with VAL (3mg/kg per day) or LCZ696 (6mg/kg per day) for 2 weeks before MCA occlusion. Blood pressure and heart rate were measured by telemetry. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) was determined by laser-Doppler flowmetry. Ischemic area was evaluated by triphenytetrasodium chloride staining, and oxidative stress was determined by dihydroethidium staining. Blood pressure and heart rate were not significantly different before and after treatment. Pre-treatment with LCZ696 or VAL reduced the ischemic area, and this effect of LCZ696 was more marked than that of VAL pre-treatment. The decrease in CBF in the peripheral region of the ischemic area was significantly attenuated by pre-treatment with LCZ696 or VAL, without any significant effect on CBF in the core region. VAL or LCZ696 pre-treatment significantly decreased the increase of superoxide anion production in the cortex on the ischemic side. However, no significant difference in CBF and superoxide anion production was observed between VAL and LCZ696 pre-treatment. The preventive effect of LCZ696 on ischemic brain damage after stroke was more marked than that of VAL. LCZ696 could be used as a new approach to prevent brain damage after stroke. (246 words).

Direct angiotensin II type 2 receptor stimulation by compound 21 prevents vascular dementia.

Angiotensin II type 2 (AT(2)) receptor activation has been reported to play a role in cognitive function, although its detailed mechanisms and pathologic significance are not fully understood. We examined the possibility that direct AT(2) receptor stimulation by compound 21 (C21) could prevent cognitive decline associated with hypoperfusion in the brain.We employed a bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS) model in mice as a model of vascular dementia. The Morris water maze task was performed 6 weeks after BCAS operation. Azilsartan (0.1 mg/kg/day) or C21 (10 µg/kg/day) was administered from 1 week before BCAS. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) and inflammatory cytokine levels were also determined. Wild-type (WT) mice showed significant prolongation of escape latency after BCAS, and this cognitive impairment was attenuated by pretreatment with azilsartan. Cognitive impairment was more marked in AT(2) receptor knockout (AT(2)KO) mice, and the preventive effect of azilsartan on cognitive decline was weaker in AT(2)KO mice than in WT mice, suggesting that the improvement of cognitive decline by azilsartan may involve stimulation of the AT(2) receptor. The significant impairment of spatial learning after BCAS in WT mice was attenuated by C21 treatment. The decrease in CBF in the BCAS-treated group was blunted by C21 treatment, and the increase in TNF-α and MCP-1 mRNA expression after BCAS was attenuated by C21 treatment. These findings indicate that direct AT(2) receptor stimulation attenuates ischemic vascular dementia induced by hypoperfusion at least in part through an increase in CBF, and a reduction of inflammation.

Angiotensin II type 2 receptor signaling affects dopamine levels in the brain and prevents binge eating disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Binge eating disorder (BED) is associated with dopaminergic activation as food reward, resulting in metabolism-related disorders. Stimulation of angiotensin type 2 (AT2) receptor is reported to inhibit dopamine synthesis. We investigated the possible roles of AT2 receptor-mediated dopamine regulation in the pathogenesis of BED. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Male C57BL/6 mice, type 2 diabetic (KKAy) mice and AT2 receptor-null (AT2KO) mice at eight weeks old were treated with AT2 receptor agonist, compound 21 (C21) or saline for two weeks. Mice were subjected to fasting for two days followed by re-feeding for seven days. RESULTS: Treatment with C21 attenuated the rebound proportion of body weight, food intake and water intake in KKAy mice, but not in C57BL/6 and AT2KO mice. Dopamine concentration in the striatum was further increased by fasting in KKAy and AT2KO mice. Administration of C21 significantly attenuated this fasting-induced increase in dopamine level only in KKAy mice. Dopamine receptor D1, D2 expression in the substantia nigra were markedly lower in KKAy mice compared with C57BL/6 mice, while administration of C21 increased their expression in KKAy mice. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that AT2 receptor stimulation may be a new therapeutic approach to improve eating disorder associated with dopamine resistance.

Drinking citrus fruit juice inhibits vascular remodeling in cuff-induced vascular injury mouse model.

Citrus fruits are thought to have inhibitory effects on oxidative stress, thereby attenuating the onset and progression of cancer and cardiovascular disease; however, there are few reports assessing their effect on vascular remodeling. Here, we investigated the effect of drinking the juice of two different citrus fruits on vascular neointima formation using a cuff-induced vascular injury mouse model. Male C57BL6 mice were divided into five groups as follows: 1) Control (water) (C), 2) 10% Citrus unshiu (CU) juice (CU10), 3) 40% CU juice (CU40), 4) 10% Citrus iyo (CI) juice (CI10), and 5) 40% CI juice (CI40). After drinking them for 2 weeks from 8 weeks of age, cuff injury was induced by polyethylene cuff placement around the femoral artery. Neointima formation was significantly attenuated in CU40, CI10 and CI40 compared with C; however, no remarkable preventive effect was observed in CU10. The increases in levels of various inflammatory markers including cytokines such as monocyte chemotactic protein-1, interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1ß, and tumor necrosis factor-α in response to vascular injury did not differ significantly between C, CU10 and CI10. The increases in cell proliferation and superoxide anion production were markedly attenuated in CI10, but not in CU10 compared with C. The increase in phosphorylated ERK expression was markedly attenuated both in CU10 and CI10 without significant difference between CU10 and CI10. Accumulation of immune cells did not differ between CU10 and CI10. These results indicate that drinking citrus fruit juice attenuates vascular remodeling partly via a reduction of oxidative stress. Interestingly, the preventive efficacy on neointima formation was stronger in CI than in CU at least in part due to more prominent inhibitory effects on oxidative stress by CI.

Role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2/angiotensin-(1-7)/Mas axis in the hypotensive effect of azilsartan.

The possible counteracting effect of angiotensin (Ang)-converting enzyme (ACE)2/Ang-(1-7)/Mas axis against the ACE/Ang II/Ang II type 1 (AT1) receptor axis in blood pressure control has been previously described. We examined the possibility that this pathway might be involved in the anti-hypertensive effect of a newly developed AT1 receptor blocker (ARB), azilsartan, and compared azilsartan's effects with those of another ARB, olmesartan. Transgenic mice carrying the human renin and angiotensinogen genes (hRN/hANG-Tg) were given azilsartan or olmesartan. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, as determined by radiotelemetry, were significantly higher in hRN/hANG-Tg mice than in wild-type (WT) mice. Treatment with azilsartan or olmesartan (1 or 5 mg kg(-1) per day) significantly decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and the blood pressure-lowering effect of azilsartan was more marked than that of olmesartan. The urinary Na concentration decreased in an age-dependent manner in hRN/hANG-Tg mice. Administration of azilsartan or olmesartan increased urinary Na concentration, and this effect was weaker with olmesartan than with azilsartan. Azilsartan decreased ENaC-α mRNA expression in the kidney and decreased the ratio of heart to body weight. Olmesartan had a similar but less-marked effect. ACE2 mRNA expression was lower in the kidneys and hearts of hRN/hANG-Tg mice than in WT mice. This decrease in ACE2 mRNA expression was attenuated by azilsartan, but not by olmesartan. These results suggest that the hypotensive and anti-hypertrophic effects of azilsartan may involve activation of the ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/Mas axis with AT1 receptor blockade.

Direct stimulation of angiotensin II type 2 receptor initiated after stroke ameliorates ischemic brain damage.

BACKGROUND: Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability; however, meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of blood pressure-lowering drugs in acute stroke has shown no definite evidence of a beneficial effect on functional outcome. Accumulating evidence suggests that angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade with angiotensin II type 2 (AT2) receptor stimulation could contribute to protection against ischemic brain damage. We examined the possibility that direct AT2 receptor stimulation by compound 21 (C21) initiated even after stroke can prevent ischemic brain damage. METHODS: Stroke was induced by middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion, and the area of cerebral infarction was measured by magnetic resonant imaging. C21 (10 µg/kg/day) treatment was initiated immediately after MCA occlusion by intraperitoneal injection followed by treatment with C21 once daily. RESULTS: We observed that ischemic area was enlarged in a time dependent fashion and decreased on day 5 after MCA occlusion. Treatment with C21 initiated after MCA occlusion significantly reduced the ischemic area, with improvement of neurological deficit in a time-dependent manner without affecting blood pressure. The decrease of cerebral blood flow after MCA occlusion was also ameliorated by C21 treatment. Moreover, treatment with C21 significantly attenuated superoxide anion production and expression of proinflammatory cytokines, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and tumor necrosis factor α. Interestingly, C21 administration significantly decreased blood-brain barrier permeability and cerebral edema on the ischemic side. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide new evidence that direct AT2 receptor stimulation with C21 is a novel therapeutic approach to prevent ischemic brain damage after acute stroke.

Possible role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and activation of angiotensin II type 2 receptor by angiotensin-(1-7) in improvement of vascular remodeling by angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade.

Cross talk between the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)/angiotensin II (Ang II)/Ang II type 1 (AT1) receptor axis and the ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/Mas axis plays a role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular remodeling. Furthermore, possible stimulation of the Ang II type 2 (AT2) receptor by Ang-(1-7) has been highlighted as a new pathway. Therefore, we examined the possibility of whether the ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/Mas axis and Ang-(1-7)/AT2 receptor axis are involved in the inhibitory effects of AT1 receptor blockers on vascular remodeling. Wild-type, Mas-knockout, and AT2 receptor knockout mice were used in this study. Vascular injury was induced by polyethylene-cuff placement around the mouse femoral artery. Some mice were treated with azilsartan, an AT1 receptor blocker, or Ang-(1-7). Neointimal formation 2 weeks after cuff placement was more marked in Mas-knockout mice compared with wild-type mice. Treatment with azilsartan or Ang-(1-7) attenuated neointimal area, vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, increases in the mRNA levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-1ß, and superoxide anion production in the injured artery; however, these inhibitory effects of azilsartan and Ang-(1-7) were less marked in Mas-knockout mice. Administration of azilsartan or Ang-(1-7) attenuated the decrease in ACE2 mRNA and increased AT2 receptor mRNA but did not affect AT1 receptor mRNA or the decrease in Mas mRNA. The inhibitory effect of Ang-(1-7) on neointimal formation was less marked in AT2 receptor knockout mice compared with wild-type mice. These results suggest that blockade of the AT1 receptor by azilsartan could enhance the activities of the ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/Mas axis and ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/AT2 receptor axis, thereby inhibiting neointimal formation.