Knockout of endoplasmic reticulum-localized molecular chaperone HSP90.7 impairs seedling development and cellular auxin homeostasis in Arabidopsis.

The Arabidopsis endoplasmic reticulum-localized heat shock protein HSP90.7 modulates tissue differentiation and stress responses; however, complete knockout lines have not been previously reported. In this study, we identified and analyzed a mutant allele, hsp90.7-1, which was unable to accumulate the HSP90.7 full-length protein and showed seedling lethality. Microscopic analyses revealed its essential role in male and female fertility, trichomes and root hair development, proper chloroplast function, and apical meristem maintenance and differentiation. Comparative transcriptome and proteome analyses also revealed the role of the protein in a multitude of cellular processes. Particularly, the auxin-responsive pathway was specifically downregulated in the hsp90.7-1 mutant seedlings. We measured a much-reduced auxin content in both root and shoot tissues. Through comprehensive histological and molecular analyses, we confirmed PIN1 and PIN5 accumulations were dependent on the HSP90 function, and the TAA-YUCCA primary auxin biosynthesis pathway was also downregulated in the mutant seedlings. This study therefore not only fulfilled a gap in understanding the essential role of HSP90 paralogs in eukaryotes but also provided a mechanistic insight on the ER-localized chaperone in regulating plant growth and development via modulating cellular auxin homeostasis.

Abscisic acid biosynthesis is necessary for full auxin effects on hypocotyl elongation.

In concert with other phytohormones, auxin regulates plant growth and development. However, how auxin and other phytohormones coordinately regulate distinct processes is not fully understood. In this work, we uncover an auxin-abscisic acid (ABA) interaction module in Arabidopsis that is specific to coordinating activities of these hormones in the hypocotyl. From our forward genetics screen, we determine that ABA biosynthesis is required for the full effects of auxin on hypocotyl elongation. Our data also suggest that ABA biosynthesis is not required for the inhibitory effects of auxin treatment on root elongation. Our transcriptome analysis identified distinct auxin-responsive genes in root and shoot tissues, which is consistent with differential regulation of growth in these tissues. Further, our data suggest that many gene targets repressed upon auxin treatment require an intact ABA pathway for full repression. Our results support a model in which auxin stimulates ABA biosynthesis to fully regulate hypocotyl elongation.

Conserved and unique functions of NIN-like proteins in nitrate sensing and signaling.

Nitrogen is the most abundant element in the atmosphere and serves as the foundation block of life, including plants on earth. Unlike carbon fixation through photosynthesis, plants rely heavily on external supports to acquire nitrogen. To this end, plants have adapted various strategies such as forming mutualistic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and evolving a large regulatory network that includes multiple transporters, sensors, and transcription factors for fine-tuning nitrate sensing and signaling. Nodule Inception (NIN) and NIN-like protein (NLP) are central in this network by executing multiple functions such as initiating and regulating the nodule symbiosis for nitrogen fixation, acting as the intracellular sensor to monitor the nitrate fluctuations in the environment, and activating the transcription of nitrate-responsive genes for optimal nitrogen uptake, assimilation, and usage. The involvement of NLPs in intracellular nitrate binding and early nitrate responses highlight their pivotal role in the primary nitrate response (PNR). Genome-wide reprogramming in response to nitrate by NLP is highly transient and rapid, requiring regulation in a precise and dynamic manner. This review aims to summarize recent progress in the study of NIN/NLP for a better understanding of the molecular basis of their roles and regulations in nitrate sensing and signaling, with the hope of shedding light on increasing biological nitrogen fixation and improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) to minimize fertilizer input in agriculture.

Persistence of Abscisic Acid Analogs in Plants: Chemical Control of Plant Growth and Physiology.

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone that regulates numerous plant processes, including plant growth, development, and stress physiology. ABA plays an important role in enhancing plant stress tolerance. This involves the ABA-mediated control of gene expression to increase antioxidant activities for scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS). ABA is a fragile molecule that is rapidly isomerized by ultraviolet (UV) light and catabolized in plants. This makes it challenging to apply as a plant growth substance. ABA analogs are synthetic derivatives of ABA that alter ABA's functions to modulate plant growth and stress physiology. Modifying functional group(s) in ABA analogs alters the potency, selectivity to receptors, and mode of action (i.e., either agonists or antagonists). Despite current advances in developing ABA analogs with high affinity to ABA receptors, it remains under investigation for its persistence in plants. The persistence of ABA analogs depends on their tolerance to catabolic and xenobiotic enzymes and light. Accumulated studies have demonstrated that the persistence of ABA analogs impacts the potency of its effect in plants. Thus, evaluating the persistence of these chemicals is a possible scheme for a better prediction of their functionality and potency in plants. Moreover, optimizing chemical administration protocols and biochemical characterization is also critical in validating the function of chemicals. Lastly, the development of chemical and genetic controls is required to acquire the stress tolerance of plants for multiple different uses.

Multi-omics atlas of combinatorial abiotic stress responses in wheat.

Field-grown crops rarely experience growth conditions in which yield can be maximized. Environmental stresses occur in combination, with advancements in crop tolerance further complicated by its polygenic nature. Strategic targeting of causal genes is required to meet future crop production needs. Here, we employed a systems biology approach in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to investigate physio-metabolic adjustments and transcriptome reprogramming involved in acclimations to heat, drought, salinity and all combinations therein. A significant shift in magnitude and complexity of plant response was evident across stress scenarios based on the agronomic losses, increased proline concentrations and 8.7-fold increase in unique differentially expressed transcripts (DETs) observed under the triple stress condition. Transcriptome data from all stress treatments were assembled into an online, open access eFP browser for visualizing gene expression during abiotic stress. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis revealed 152 hub genes of which 32% contained the ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated amphiphilic repression (EAR) transcriptional repression motif. Cross-referencing against the 31 DETs common to all stress treatments isolated TaWRKY33 as a leading candidate for greater plant tolerance to combinatorial stresses. Integration of our findings with available literature on gene functional characterization allowed us to further suggest flexible gene combinations for future adaptive gene stacking in wheat. Our approach demonstrates the strength of robust multi-omics-based data resources for gene discovery in complex environmental conditions. Accessibility of such datasets will promote cross-validation of candidate genes across studies and aid in accelerating causal gene validation for crop resiliency.

An efficient and scalable synthesis of a persistent abscisic acid analog (+)-tetralone ABA.

The plant hormone (S)-abscisic acid (ABA) is a signalling molecule found in all plants that triggers plants' responses to environmental stressors such as heat, drought, and salinity. Metabolism-resistant ABA analogs that confer longer lasting effects require multi-step syntheses and high costs that prevent their application in crop protection. To solve this issue, we have developed a two-step, efficient and scalable synthesis of (+)-tetralone ABA from (S)-ABA methyl ester. A challenging three-carbon insertion and a bicyclic ring formation on (S)-ABA methyl ester was achieved through a highly regioselective Knoevenagel condensation, cyclization, and oxidation in one-pot. Further we have studied the biological activity and metabolism of (+)-tetralone ABA in planta and found the analog is hydroxylated similarly to ABA. The biologically active hydroxylated tetralone ABA has greater persistence than 8'-hydroxy ABA as cyclization to the equivalent of phaseic acid is prevented by the aromatic ring. (+)-tetralone ABA complemented the growth retardation of an Arabidopsis ABA-deficient mutant more effectively than (+)-ABA. Taken together, this new synthesis allows the production of the potent ABA agonist efficiently on an industrial scale.

Label-Free Quantitative Proteomics Reveal the Involvement of PRT6 in Arabidopsis thaliana Seed Responsiveness to Ethylene.

In Arabidopsis thaliana, the breaking of seed dormancy in wild type (Col-0) by ethylene at 100 µL L-1 required at least 30 h application. A mutant of the proteolytic N-degron pathway, lacking the E3 ligase PROTEOLYSIS 6 (PRT6), was investigated for its role in ethylene-triggered changes in proteomes during seed germination. Label-free quantitative proteomics was carried out on dormant wild type Col-0 and prt6 seeds treated with (+) or without (-) ethylene. After 16 h, 1737 proteins were identified, but none was significantly different in protein levels in response to ethylene. After longer ethylene treatment (30 h), 2552 proteins were identified, and 619 Differentially Expressed Proteins (DEPs) had significant differences in protein abundances between ethylene treatments and genotypes. In Col, 587 DEPs were enriched for those involved in signal perception and transduction, reserve mobilization and new material generation, which potentially contributed to seed germination. DEPs up-regulated by ethylene in Col included S-adenosylmethionine synthase 1, methionine adenosyltransferase 3 and ACC oxidase involved in ethylene synthesis and of Pyrabactin Resistance1 acting as an ABA receptor, while DEPs down-regulated by ethylene in Col included aldehyde oxidase 4 involved in ABA synthesis. In contrast, in prt6 seeds, ethylene did not result in strong proteomic changes with only 30 DEPs. Taken together, the present work demonstrates that the proteolytic N-degron pathway is essential for ethylene-mediated reprogramming of seed proteomes during germination.

Role of Basal ABA in Plant Growth and Development.

Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates various aspects of plant physiology, including promoting seed dormancy and adaptive responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. In addition, ABA plays an im-portant role in growth and development under non-stressed conditions. This review summarizes phenotypes of ABA biosynthesis and signaling mutants to clarify the roles of basal ABA in growth and development. The promotive and inhibitive actions of ABA in growth are characterized by stunted and enhanced growth of ABA-deficient and insensitive mutants, respectively. Growth regulation by ABA is both promotive and inhibitive, depending on the context, such as concentrations, tissues, and environmental conditions. Basal ABA regulates local growth including hyponastic growth, skotomorphogenesis and lateral root growth. At the cellular level, basal ABA is essential for proper chloroplast biogenesis, central metabolism, and expression of cell-cycle genes. Basal ABA also regulates epidermis development in the shoot, by inhibiting stomatal development, and deposition of hydrophobic polymers like a cuticular wax layer covering the leaf surface. In the root, basal ABA is involved in xylem differentiation and suberization of the endodermis. Hormone crosstalk plays key roles in growth and developmental processes regulated by ABA. Phenotypes of ABA-deficient and insensitive mutants indicate prominent functions of basal ABA in plant growth and development.

CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDE-GATED ION CHANNEL 2 modulates auxin homeostasis and signaling.

Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels (CNGCs) have been firmly established as Ca2+-conducting ion channels that regulate a wide variety of physiological responses in plants. CNGC2 has been implicated in plant immunity and Ca2+ signaling due to the autoimmune phenotypes exhibited by null mutants of CNGC2 in Arabidopsis thaliana. However, cngc2 mutants display additional phenotypes that are unique among autoimmune mutants, suggesting that CNGC2 has functions beyond defense and generates distinct Ca2+ signals in response to different triggers. In this study, we found that cngc2 mutants showed reduced gravitropism, consistent with a defect in auxin signaling. This was mirrored in the diminished auxin response detected by the auxin reporters DR5::GUS and DII-VENUS and in a strongly impaired auxin-induced Ca2+ response. Moreover, the cngc2 mutant exhibits higher levels of the endogenous auxin indole-3-acetic acid, indicating that excess auxin in the cngc2 mutant causes its pleiotropic phenotypes. These auxin signaling defects and the autoimmunity syndrome of the cngc2 mutant could be suppressed by loss-of-function mutations in the auxin biosynthesis gene YUCCA6 (YUC6), as determined by identification of the cngc2 suppressor mutant repressor of cngc2 (rdd1) as an allele of YUC6. A loss-of-function mutation in the upstream auxin biosynthesis gene TRYPTOPHAN AMINOTRANSFERASE OF ARABIDOPSIS (TAA1, WEAK ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE8) also suppressed the cngc2 phenotypes, further supporting the tight relationship between CNGC2 and the TRYPTOPHAN AMINOTRANSFERASE OF ARABIDOPSIS-YUCCA -dependent auxin biosynthesis pathway. Taking these results together, we propose that the Ca2+ signal generated by CNGC2 is a part of the negative feedback regulation of auxin homeostasis in which CNGC2 balances cellular auxin perception by influencing auxin biosynthesis.

Role of ethylene and proteolytic N-degron pathway in the regulation of Arabidopsis seed dormancy.

Primary dormant seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana did not germinate in darkness at temperature higher than 10-15°C. Ethylene improved the germination of dormant wild-type (Col-0) seeds at 25°C in darkness but seeds of the mutant affected in the proteolytic N-degron pathway, proteolysis6 (prt6), were insensitive to ethylene suggesting that PRT6 was involved in dormancy release by ethylene. The substrates of the N-degron pathway, the Ethylene Response Factors from group VII (HRE1, HRE2, RAP2.2, RAP2.3, and RAP2.12), were identified to be involved in this insensitivity with an increased germination in prt6 rap2.2 rap2.3 rap2.12 rather than in prt6 hre1 hre2, which also indicated that the three RAPs acted downstream of PRT6, while the two HREs acted upstream of PRT6. Ethylene reduced the expression of the three RAPs in Col-0 seeds but they were maintained or induced by ethylene in prt6 seeds. The promoting effect of ethylene was associated with a down-regulation of dormancy-related genes in gibberellins (GAs) and abscisic acid (ABA) signaling, such as RGA, RGL2, and ABI5, and with a strong decrease in ABA/GA4 ratio in the presence of ethylene. In contrast, we show that the insensitivity of prt6 seeds to ethylene was mainly related to GA signaling disturbance.

Redox feedback regulation of ANAC089 signaling alters seed germination and stress response.

The interplay between the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) and the gasotransmitter nitric oxide (NO) regulates seed germination and post-germinative seedling growth. We show that GAP1 (germination in ABA and cPTIO 1) encodes the transcription factor ANAC089 with a critical membrane-bound domain and extranuclear localization. ANAC089 mutants lacking the membrane-tethered domain display insensitivity to ABA, salt, and osmotic and cold stresses, revealing a repressor function. Whole-genome transcriptional profiling and DNA-binding specificity reveals that ANAC089 regulates ABA- and redox-related genes. ANAC089 truncated mutants exhibit higher NO and lower ROS and ABA endogenous levels, alongside an altered thiol and disulfide homeostasis. Consistently, translocation of ANAC089 to the nucleus is directed by changes in cellular redox status after treatments with NO scavengers and redox-related compounds. Our results reveal ANAC089 to be a master regulator modulating redox homeostasis and NO levels, able to repress ABA synthesis and signaling during Arabidopsis seed germination and abiotic stress.

3'-(Phenyl alkynyl) analogs of abscisic acid: synthesis and biological activity of potent ABA antagonists.

We report here the synthesis and biological testing of 3'-(phenyl alkynyl) abscisic ABA analogs, a new class of potent ABA antagonists. These ABA analogs incorporate a rigid framework of eight carbon atoms attached at the 3'-carbon atom of ABA that prevents folding of the ABA analog-bound receptor required for ABA signalling. The two-step synthesis is based upon the optimized conversion of natural (S)-ABA to 3'-iodo ABA which can be coupled to phenyl acetylenes using Sonogashira conditions, or to styryl compounds through Suzuki chemistry. The parent 3'-(phenyl alkynyl) ABA analog 7 was obtained in 29% yield, 74% yield based on recovered starting material. In a lentil seed germination assay, compound 7 was found to have more potent activity than other known 3'-substituted ABA antagonists to date. In a structure activity study parasubstituted phenyl alkynyl analogs had comparable activity to the analog 7 while the 3'-styryl ABA 18 was only slightly less active. Analog 7 overcame ABA inhibition of germination and seedling growth in a wide range of mono and dicot plant species, including canola, lentil, soybean, rice, wheat, barley, cannabis and canary seed. 3'-(Phenyl alkynyl) ABA analogs have numerous potential practical agricultural applications including promoting ripening of crops, dormancy breaking of seeds and woody perennials, as well as promoting seed germination, and growth under stress conditions as demonstrated in this report.

Auxin Homeostasis and Distribution of the Auxin Efflux Carrier PIN2 Require Vacuolar NHX-Type Cation/H+ Antiporter Activity.

The Arabidopsis vacuolar Na+/H+ transporters (NHXs) are important regulators of intracellular pH, Na+ and K+ homeostasis and necessary for normal plant growth, development, and stress acclimation. Arabidopsis contains four vacuolar NHX isoforms known as AtNHX1 to AtNHX4. The quadruple knockout nhx1nhx2nhx3nhx4, lacking any vacuolar NHX-type antiporter activity, displayed auxin-related phenotypes including loss of apical dominance, reduced root growth, impaired gravitropism and less sensitivity to exogenous IAA and NAA, but not to 2,4-D. In nhx1nhx2nhx3nhx4, the abundance of the auxin efflux carrier PIN2, but not PIN1, was drastically reduced at the plasma membrane and was concomitant with an increase in PIN2 labeled intracellular vesicles. Intracellular trafficking to the vacuole was also delayed in the mutant. Measurements of free IAA content and imaging of the auxin sensor DII-Venus, suggest that auxin accumulates in root tips of nhx1nhx2nhx3nhx4. Collectively, our results indicate that vacuolar NHX dependent cation/H+ antiport activity is needed for proper auxin homeostasis, likely by affecting intracellular trafficking and distribution of the PIN2 efflux carrier.

flasher, a novel mutation in a glucosinolate modifying enzyme, conditions changes in plant architecture and hormone homeostasis.

Meristem function is underpinned by numerous genes that affect hormone levels, ultimately controlling phyllotaxy, the transition to flowering and general growth properties. Class I KNOX genes are major contributors to this process, promoting cytokinin biosynthesis but repressing gibberellin production to condition a replication competent state. We identified a suppressor mutant of the KNOX1 mutant brevipedicellus (bp) that we termed flasher (fsh), which promotes stem and pedicel elongation, suppresses early senescence, and negatively affects reproductive development. Map-based cloning and complementation tests revealed that fsh is due to an E40K change in the flavin monooxygenase GS-OX5, a gene encoding a glucosinolate (GSL) modifying enzyme. In vitro enzymatic assays revealed that fsh poorly converts substrate to product, yet the levels of several GSLs are higher in the suppressor line, implicating FSH in feedback control of GSL flux. FSH is expressed predominantly in the vasculature in patterns that do not significantly overlap those of BP, implying a non-cell autonomous mode of meristem control via one or more GSL metabolites. Hormone analyses revealed that cytokinin levels are low in bp, but fsh restores cytokinin levels to near normal by activating cytokinin biosynthesis genes. In addition, jasmonate levels in the fsh suppressor are significantly lower than in bp, which is likely due to elevated expression of JA inactivating genes. These observations suggest the involvement of the GSL pathway in generating one or more negative effectors of growth that influence inflorescence architecture and fecundity by altering the balance of hormonal regulators.

Re-localization of hormone effectors is associated with dormancy alleviation by temperature and after-ripening in sunflower seeds.

Temperature is the primary factor that affects seed dormancy and germination. However, the molecular mechanism that underlies its effect on dormancy alleviation remained largely unknown. In this study, we investigate hormone involvement in temperature induced germination as compared to that caused by after-ripening. Dormant (D) sunflower seeds cannot germinate at 10 °C but fully germinate at 20 °C. After-ripened seeds become non-dormant (ND), i.e. able to germinate at 10 °C. Pharmacological experiments showed the importance of abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellins (GAs) and ethylene in temperature- and after-ripening-induced germination of sunflower seeds. Hormone quantification showed that after-ripening is mediated by a decline in both ABA content and sensitivity while ABA content is increased in D seeds treated at 10 or 20 °C, suggesting that ABA decrease is not a prerequisite for temperature induced dormancy alleviation. GAs and ethylene contents were in accordance with germination potential of the three conditions (GA1 was higher in D 20 °C and ND 10 °C than in D 10 °C). Transcripts analysis showed that the major change concerns ABA and GAs metabolism genes, while ABA signalling gene expression was significantly unchanged. Moreover, another level of hormonal regulation at the subcellular localization has been revealed by immunocytolocalization study. Indeed, ABA, protein Abscisic acid-Insensitive 5 (ABI5), involved in ABA-regulated gene expression and DELLA protein RGL2, a repressor of the gibberellins signalling pathway, localized mainly in the nucleus in non-germinating seeds while they localized in the cytosol in germinating seeds. Furthermore, ACC-oxidase (ACO) protein, the key ethylene biosynthesis enzyme, was detected in the meristem only in germinating seeds. Our results reveal the importance of hormone actors trafficking in the cell and their regulation in specialized tissue such as the meristem in dormancy alleviation and germination.

Hormone balance in a climacteric plum fruit and its non-climacteric bud mutant during ripening.

Hormone balance plays a crucial role in the control of fruit ripening. We characterized and compared hormone balance in two Japanese plum cultivars (Prunus salicina Lindl.), namely Santa Rosa, a climacteric type, and Sweet Miriam, its non-climacteric bud-sport mutant. We assessed hormonal changes in gene expression associated with hormone biosynthesis, perception and signaling during ripening on-the tree and throughout postharvest storage and in response to ethylene treatments. Non-climacteric fruit displayed lower ethylene levels than climacteric fruit at all stages and lower auxin levels during the initiation of ripening on-the-tree and during most of post-harvest storage. Moreover, 1-MCP-induced ethylene decrease also resulted in low auxin contents in Santa Rosa, supporting the role of auxin in climacteric fruit ripening. The differences in auxin contents between Santa Rosa and Sweet Miriam fruit could be the consequence of different routed auxin biosynthesis pathways as indicated by the significant negative correlations between clusters of auxin metabolism-associated genes. Ethylene induced increased ABA levels throughout postharvest storage in both ripening types. Overall, ripening of Santa Rosa and Sweet Miriam fruit are characterized by distinct hormone accumulation pathways and interactions.

The Arabidopsis SAL1-PAP Pathway: A Case Study for Integrating Chloroplast Retrograde, Light and Hormonal Signaling in Modulating Plant Growth and Development?

Plant growth and development are dependent on chloroplast development and function. Constitutive high level accumulation of a chloroplast stress signal, 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphate (PAP), confers drought tolerance to plants, but slow downs and alters plant growth and development. PAP, a by-product of sulfur metabolism, is maintained at very low levels by the SAL1 phosphatase during vegetative growth of Arabidopsis and accumulates in rosettes during drought and excess light. Eight independent forward genetic screens in Arabidopsis identified SAL1 as the regulator of multiple phenotypes related to stress responses, hormonal signaling and/or perception. In this perspective article, we collate all the sal1 phenotypes published in the past two decades, and distill the different pathways affected. Our meta-analysis of publicly available sal1 microarray data coupled to preliminary hormonal treatment and profiling results on sal1 indicate that homeostasis and responses to multiple hormones in sal1 are altered during rosette growth, suggesting a potential connection between SAL1-PAP stress retrograde pathway and hormonal signaling. We propose the SAL1-PAP pathway as a case study for integrating chloroplast retrograde signaling, light signaling and hormonal signaling in plant growth and morphogenesis.

Temperature variability is integrated by a spatially embedded decision-making center to break dormancy in Arabidopsis seeds.

Plants perceive and integrate information from the environment to time critical transitions in their life cycle. Some mechanisms underlying this quantitative signal processing have been described, whereas others await discovery. Seeds have evolved a mechanism to integrate environmental information by regulating the abundance of the antagonistically acting hormones abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellin (GA). Here, we show that hormone metabolic interactions and their feedbacks are sufficient to create a bistable developmental fate switch in Arabidopsis seeds. A digital single-cell atlas mapping the distribution of hormone metabolic and response components revealed their enrichment within the embryonic radicle, identifying the presence of a decision-making center within dormant seeds. The responses to both GA and ABA were found to occur within distinct cell types, suggesting cross-talk occurs at the level of hormone transport between these signaling centers. We describe theoretically, and demonstrate experimentally, that this spatial separation within the decision-making center is required to process variable temperature inputs from the environment to promote the breaking of dormancy. In contrast to other noise-filtering systems, including human neurons, the functional role of this spatial embedding is to leverage variability in temperature to transduce a fate-switching signal within this biological system. Fluctuating inputs therefore act as an instructive signal for seeds, enhancing the accuracy with which plants are established in ecosystems, and distributed computation within the radicle underlies this signal integration mechanism.