Synthesis and preclinical testing of a selective beta-subtype agonist of thyroid hormone receptor ZTA-261.

BACKGROUND: Thyroid hormones (TH) regulate the basal metabolic rate through their receptors THRα and THRß. TH activates lipid metabolism via THRß, however, an excess amount of TH can lead to tachycardia, bone loss, and muscle wasting through THRα. In recent years, TH analogs that selectively bind to THRß have gained attention as new agents for treating dyslipidemia and obesity, which continue to pose major challenges to public health worldwide. METHODS: We developed a TH analog, ZTA-261, by modifying the existing THRß-selective agonists GC-1 and GC-24. To determine the THRß-selectivity of ZTA-261, an in vitro radiolabeled TH displacement assay was conducted. ZTA-261 was intraperitoneally injected into a mouse model of high-fat diet-induced obesity, and its effectiveness in reducing body weight and visceral fat, and improving lipid metabolism was assessed. In addition, its toxicity in the liver, heart, and bone was evaluated. RESULTS: ZTA-261 is more selective towards THRß than GC-1. Although ZTA-261 is less effective in reducing body weight and visceral fat than GC-1, it is as effective as GC-1 in reducing the levels of serum and liver lipids. These effects are mediated by the same pathway as that of T3, a natural TH, as evidenced by similar changes in the expression of TH-induced and lipid metabolism-related genes. The bone, cardiac, and hepatotoxicity of ZTA-261 are significantly lower than those of GC-1. CONCLUSIONS: ZTA-261, a highly selective and less toxic THRß agonist, has the potential to be used as a drug for treating diseases related to lipid metabolism.

Nearly 10% of the world's population suffers from obesity or is overweight. These conditions are closely related to disorders of lipid metabolism, posing significant challenges to individuals and healthcare systems. Thyroid hormone (TH) activates metabolism by binding to specific protein partners, called TH receptors (THRs). There are two types of THRs, THRα and THRß. THRß activates lipid metabolism; however, THRα negatively affects the heart, bone, and muscle when TH is in excess. This study developed a drug called ZTA-261 that selectively binds to THRß. Its administration to mice with induced obesity from a high-fat diet resulted in reduced body fat without any apparent toxicity. Therefore, ZTA-261 is a promising candidate to improve lipid metabolism and address the obesity epidemic.

If the Crown Fits: Sterically Demanding N-Heterocyclic Carbene Promotes the Formation of Au8Pt Nanoclusters.

While N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have recently been shown to be effective ligands for gold nanoclusters, very few examples of heterometallic clusters incorporating nongroup 11 metals are known. We present herein an Au-Pt NHC cluster featuring a crown-shaped [Au8Pt(NHC)8]2+ core, produced in high yield without the need for chromatographic purification. The method was largely independent of the substitution pattern of the NHC backbone; however, bulky wingtip groups were needed for clean conversion to the Au8Pt cluster. Clusters were characterized using single crystal X-ray diffraction, multinuclear nuclear magnetic resonance, electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy, and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, and electrochemical features of the cluster are also presented. A detailed analysis of the in-progress reaction mixture by ESI-MS supports the direct involvement of Au-H species as intermediates in cluster formation. These studies further demonstrate that NHC wingtip sterics play a key part in determining the nature of the initial cluster species, providing critical information for the generation of new NHC-stabilized nanoclusters.

Enantiospecific cross-coupling of cyclic alkyl sulfones.

Methods to form carbon-carbon bonds efficiently and with control of stereochemistry are critical for the construction of complex molecules. Cross-coupling reactions are among the most efficient and widely used reactions to construct molecules, with reactions enabling the retention or installation of chirality as recent additions to this powerful toolbox. Sulfones are robust, accessible organic electrophiles that have many attractive features as cross-coupling partners; however, since the first example of their use in 1979, there have been no examples of their use in enantioselective, enantiospecific or entantioconvergent cross-couplings. The high acidity of sulfones makes it unclear whether this transformation is even possible outside tertiary systems. Here we report the enantiospecific cross-coupling of cyclic sulfones and Grignard reagents. Up to 99% chirality transfer is observed despite the strong basicity of the Grignard components. In situ monitoring reveals that the cross-coupling is kinetically competitive with competing deprotonation, resulting in a highly enantioselective transformation.

Visible-light-induced direct C-H alkylation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with alkylsulfones.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are fragments of graphene that have attracted considerable attention as a new class of carbon-based materials. The functionalization of edge positions in PAHs is important to enable the modulation of physical and chemical properties essential for various applications. However, straightforward methods that combine functional group tolerance and regioselectivity remain sought after. Here we report a photochemical approach for the direct alkylation of carbon-hydrogen bonds in PAHs that takes place in a regiospecific manner, an outcome that has never been achieved in related thermal reactions. A reaction mechanism involving a single electron transfer process from photo-excited PAHs to sulfones, and a rationale for the origin of regioselectivity are proposed on the basis of spectroscopic analyses and theoretical calculations.

N-Heterocyclic Carbene-Stabilized Atomically Precise Metal Nanoclusters.

This perspective highlights advances in the preparation and understanding of metal nanoclusters stabilized by organic ligands with a focus on N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs). We demonstrate the need for a clear understanding of the relationship between NHC properties and their resulting metal nanocluster structure and properties. We emphasize the importance of balancing nanocluster stability with the introduction of reactive sites for catalytic applications and the importance of a better understanding of how these clusters interact with their environments for effective use in biological applications. The impact of atom-scale simulations, development of atomic interaction potentials suitable for large-scale molecular dynamics simulations, and a deeper understanding of the mechanisms behind synthetic methods and physical properties (e.g., the bright fluorescence displayed by many clusters) are emphasized.

NHC-Stabilized Au10 Nanoclusters and Their Conversion to Au25 Nanoclusters.

Herein, we describe the synthesis of a toroidal Au10 cluster stabilized by N-heterocyclic carbene and halide ligands via reduction of the corresponding NHC-Au-X complexes (X = Cl, Br, I). The significant effect of the halide ligands on the formation, stability, and further conversions of these clusters is presented. While solutions of the chloride derivatives of Au10 show no change even upon heating, the bromide derivative readily undergoes conversion to form a biicosahedral Au25 cluster at room temperature. For the iodide derivative, the formation of a significant amount of Au25 was observed even upon the reduction of NHC-Au-I. The isolated bromide derivative of the Au25 cluster displays a relatively high (ca. 15%) photoluminescence quantum yield, attributed to the high rigidity of the cluster, which is enforced by multiple CH-π interactions within the molecular structure. Density functional theory computations are used to characterize the electronic structure and optical absorption of the Au10 cluster. 13C-Labeling is employed to assist with characterization of the products and to observe their conversions by NMR spectroscopy.

Synthesis and Characterization of Enantiopure Chiral Bis NHC-Stabilized Edge-Shared Au10 Nanocluster with Unique Prolate Shape.

Herein we report the first chiral Au10 nanoclusters stabilized by chiral bis N-heterocyclic carbene (bisNHC) ligands. ESI-MS and single-crystal X-ray crystallography confirmed the molecular formula to be [Au10(bisNHC)4Br2](O2CCF3)2. The chiral Au10 nanocluster adopts a linear edge-shared tetrahedral geometry with a prolate shape. DFT calculations provide insight into the electronic structure, optical absorption, and circular dichroism (CD) characteristics of this unique Au10 nanocluster. CD spectra demonstrate chirality transfer from the chiral bisNHC ligand to the inner Au10 nanocluster core. Examination of ESI-MS and UV-vis spectra show that cluster [Au9(bisNHC)4Br]Br2 is formed initially and then transformed into the Au10 nanocluster in solution.

Transition Metal-Catalyzed Cross-Couplings of Benzylic Sulfone Derivatives.

In recent years, the use of organosulfones as a new class of cross-coupling partner in transition-metal catalyzed reactions has undergone significant advancement. In this personal account, our recent investigations into desulfonylative cross-coupling reactions of benzylic sulfone derivatives catalyzed by Pd, Ni, and Cu catalysis is described. Combined with the facile α-functionalizations of sulfones, our methods can be used to form valuable multiply-arylated structures such as di-, tri-, and, tetraarylmethanes from readily available substrates. The reactivity of sulfones can be increased by introducing electron-withdrawing substituents such as 3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl and trifluoromethyl groups, which enable more challenging cross-coupling reactions. Reactive intermediates including Cu-carbene complexes were identified as key intermediates in sulfone activation, representing new types of C-SO2 bond activation processes. These results indicate sulfones are powerful functional groups, enabling new catalytic desulfonylative transformations.

Synthesis and enantioseparation of chiral Au13 nanoclusters protected by bis-N-heterocyclic carbene ligands.

A series of chiral Au13 nanoclusters were synthesized via the direct reduction of achiral dinuclear Au(i) halide complexes ligated by ortho-xylyl-linked bis-N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands. A broad range of functional groups are tolerated as wingtip substituents, allowing for the synthesis of a variety of functionalized chiral Au13 nanoclusters. Single crystal X-ray crystallography confirmed the molecular formula to be [Au13(bisNHC)5Cl2]Cl3, with a chiral helical arrangement of the five bidentate NHC ligands around the icosahedral Au13 core. This Au13 nanocluster is highly luminescent, with a quantum yield of 23%. The two enantiomers of the Au13 clusters can be separated by chiral HPLC, and the isolated enantiomers were characterized by circular dichroism spectroscopy. The clusters show remarkable stability, including configurational stability, opening the door to further investigation of the effect of chirality on these clusters.

Borenium-Catalyzed Reduction of Pyridines through the Combined Action of Hydrogen and Hydrosilane.

Mesoionic carbene-stabilized borenium ions efficiently reduce substituted pyridines to piperidines in the presence of a hydrosilane and a hydrogen atmosphere. Control experiments and deuterium labeling studies demonstrate reversible hydrosilylation of the pyridine, enabling full reduction of the N-heterocycle under milder conditions. The silane is a critical reaction component to prevent adduct formation between the piperidine product and the borenium catalyst.

Synthesis of quaternary centres by single electron reduction and alkylation of alkylsulfones.

A new method for the generation of tertiary radicals through single electron reduction of alkylsulfones promoted by Zn and 1,10-phenanthroline has been developed. These radicals could be employed in the Giese reaction, affording structurally diverse quaternary products in good yields. With the high modularity and functional group compatibility of sulfones, the utility of this method was demonstrated by intramolecular and iterative reactions to give complex structures. The radical generation process was investigated by control experiments and theoretical calculations.

Alkyltriflones in the Ramberg-Bäcklund Reaction: An Efficient and Modular Synthesis of gem-Difluoroalkenes.

The unprecedented synthesis of gem-difluoroalkenes through the Ramberg-Bäcklund reaction of alkyl triflones is described herein. Structurally diverse, fully substituted gem-difluoroalkenes that are difficult to prepare by other methods can be easily prepared from readily available triflones by treatment with specific Grignard reagents. Experimental and computational studies provide insight into the unique and critical role of the Grignard reagent, which serves both as a base to remove the α-proton and as a Lewis acid to assist C-F bond activation.

Synthesis and properties of an Au6 cluster supported by a mixed N-heterocyclic carbene-thiolate ligand.

The preparation of a novel Au6 cluster bearing a bidentate mixed carbene-thiolate ligand is presented. The length of linker between the central benzimidazole and thiolate has a strong effect on the formation of cluster products, with a C2 chain giving an Au6 cluster, while a C3 chain results in no evidence of cluster formation. Density functional theory analysis predicts a non-metallic cluster with a large HOMO-LUMO (3.2-3.6 eV) and optical gap.

Modular synthesis of α-fluorinated arylmethanes via desulfonylative cross-coupling.

α-Fluoromethylarenes are common substructures in pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals, with the introduction of fluorine often resulting in improved biological activity and stability. Despite recent progress, synthetic routes to α-fluorinated diarylmethanes are still rare. Herein we describe the Pd-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling of α-fluorinated benzylic triflones with arylboronic acids affording structurally diverse α-fluorinated diarylmethanes. The ease of synthesis of fluorinated triflones as the key starting materials enables powerful late-stage transformations of known biologically active compounds into fluorinated analogs.

Pyridine-catalyzed desulfonative borylation of benzyl sulfones.

Herein, we report the transition-metal free, pyridine-catalyzed desulfonative borylation of benzyl sulfones with bis(pinacolato)diboron (B2pin2). A variety of benzhydryl- and benzyl boronic esters could be synthesized from readily prepared sulfone derivatives. The borylation of cyclic sulfones accompanied by ring opening also proceeded to afford the corresponding sulfonate, which could be converted into functionalized sulfones and sulfonamides.

N-heterocyclic carbene-functionalized magic-number gold nanoclusters.

Magic-number gold nanoclusters are atomically precise nanomaterials that have enabled unprecedented insight into structure-property relationships in nanoscience. Thiolates are the most common ligand, binding to the cluster via a staple motif in which only central gold atoms are in the metallic state. The lack of other strongly bound ligands for nanoclusters with different bonding modes has been a significant limitation in the field. Here, we report a previously unknown ligand for gold(0) nanoclusters-N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs)-which feature a robust metal-carbon single bond and impart high stability to the corresponding gold cluster. The addition of a single NHC to gold nanoclusters results in significantly improved stability and catalytic properties in the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2. By varying the conditions, nature and number of equivalents of the NHC, predominantly or exclusively monosubstituted NHC-functionalized clusters result. Clusters can also be obtained with up to five NHCs, as a mixture of species.

Cu-Catalyzed Desulfonylative Amination of Benzhydryl Sulfones.

A new method for the synthesis of benzhydryl amines from the reaction of readily available sulfone derivatives with amines is described. The Cu-catalyzed desulfonylative amination not only provides structurally diverse benzhydryl amines in good yields, but is also applicable to iterative and intramolecular aminations. Control experiments suggested that the formation of a Cu-carbene intermediate generated from the sulfone substrate, which represents a new route for desulfonylative transformations.

Ultrastable Gold Nanoparticles Modified by Bidentate N-Heterocyclic Carbene Ligands.

Highly stable gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) functionalized by bidentate N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands have been synthesized by top-down and bottom-up approaches. A detailed study of the effect of alkylation, denticity, and method of synthesis has led to the production of NHC-stabilized nanoparticles with higher thermal stability than bi- and tridentate thiol-protected Au NPs and than monodentate NHC-stabilized NPs. Importantly, bidentate NHC-protected NPs also displayed unprecedented stability to external thiol, which has been an unsolved problem to date with all nanoparticles. Thus, multidentate NHC ligands are an important, and as yet unrecognized, step forward for the preparation of high stability nanomaterials.

Preparation of Quaternary Centers via Nickel-Catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura Cross-Coupling of Tertiary Sulfones.

We describe the development of a nickel-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling of tertiary benzylic and allylic sulfones with arylboroxines. A variety of tertiary sulfones, which can easily be prepared via a deprotonation-alkylation route, were reacted to afford symmetric and unsymmetric quaternary products in good yields. We highlight the use of either BrettPhos or Doyle's phosphines as effective ligands for these challenging desulfonative coupling reactions. The utility of this methodology was demonstrated in the concise synthesis of a vitamin D receptor modulator analogue.

Pd-Catalyzed Desulfonative Cross-Coupling of Benzylic Sulfone Derivatives with 1,3-Oxazoles.

The Pd-catalyzed desulfonative cross-coupling reaction of benzylic sulfone derivatives with 1,3-oxazoles via a deprotonative pathway has been developed. Broad substrate scope for both sulfone and 1,3-oxazole partners is observed, affording a variety of 1,3-oxazole-containing triarylmethanes. Sulfone partners that are primary benzylic, secondary benzylic, and benzhydryl are all effective. Using this method, the straightforward synthesis of multiply arylated structures has been demonstrated.