Differentiating Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) and Its Mimics - A Single-Center Experience From a Tropical Setting.

OBJECTIVE: Identifying clinical and laboratory indicators that differentiate multisystem inflam-matory syndrome in children (MIS-C) apart from other febrile diseases in a tropical hospital setting. METHODS: Review of hospital records done in a tertiary care exclusive children's hospital for children admitted from April, 2020 till June, 2021. Laboratory values, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) serological status, and clinical signs and symptoms of patients with MIS-C, and those with similar presentations were analyzed. RESULTS: 114 children fulfilled the inclusion criteria (age group of 1 mo-18 y) for whom a diagnosis of MIS-C was considered in the emergency room based on the clinical features. Among them, 64 children had the final diagnosis of MIS-C, and the remaining 50 children had confirmatory evidence of infections mimicking MIS-C such as enteric fever, scrub typhus, dengue and appendicitis. CONCLUSION: Older age group, presence of muco-cutaneous symptoms, very high C-reactive protein, neutrophilic leukocytosis, abdominal pain and absence of hepatosplenomegaly favor a diagnosis of MIS-C.

A Two-tiered functional screen identifies herpesviral transcriptional modifiers and their essential domains.

While traditional methods for studying large DNA viruses allow the creation of individual mutants, CRISPR/Cas9 can be used to rapidly create thousands of mutant dsDNA viruses in parallel, enabling the pooled screening of entire viral genomes. Here, we applied this approach to Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) by designing a sgRNA library containing all possible ~22,000 guides targeting the 154 kilobase viral genome, corresponding to one cut site approximately every 8 base pairs. We used the library to profile viral sequences involved in transcriptional activation of late genes, whose regulation involves several well characterized features including dependence on viral DNA replication and a known set of viral transcriptional activators. Upon phenotyping all possible Cas9-targeted viruses for transcription of KSHV late genes we recovered these established regulators and identified a new required factor (ORF46), highlighting the utility of the screening pipeline. By performing targeted deep sequencing of the viral genome to distinguish between knock-out and in-frame alleles created by Cas9, we identify the DNA binding but not catalytic domain of ORF46 to be required for viral DNA replication and thus late gene expression. Our pooled Cas9 tiling screen followed by targeted deep viral sequencing represents a two-tiered screening paradigm that may be widely applicable to dsDNA viruses.

Launching a saliva-based SARS-CoV-2 surveillance testing program on a university campus.

Regular surveillance testing of asymptomatic individuals for SARS-CoV-2 has been center to SARS-CoV-2 outbreak prevention on college and university campuses. Here we describe the voluntary saliva testing program instituted at the University of California, Berkeley during an early period of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in 2020. The program was administered as a research study ahead of clinical implementation, enabling us to launch surveillance testing while continuing to optimize the assay. Results of both the testing protocol itself and the study participants' experience show how the program succeeded in providing routine, robust testing capable of contributing to outbreak prevention within a campus community and offer strategies for encouraging participation and a sense of civic responsibility.

The molecular virology of coronaviruses.

Few human pathogens have been the focus of as much concentrated worldwide attention as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the cause of COVID-19. Its emergence into the human population and ensuing pandemic came on the heels of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), two other highly pathogenic coronavirus spillovers, which collectively have reshaped our view of a virus family previously associated primarily with the common cold. It has placed intense pressure on the collective scientific community to develop therapeutics and vaccines, whose engineering relies on a detailed understanding of coronavirus biology. Here, we present the molecular virology of coronavirus infection, including its entry into cells, its remarkably sophisticated gene expression and replication mechanisms, its extensive remodeling of the intracellular environment, and its multifaceted immune evasion strategies. We highlight aspects of the viral life cycle that may be amenable to antiviral targeting as well as key features of its biology that await discovery.

Excessive excision of correct nucleotides during DNA synthesis explained by replication hurdles.

The proofreading exonuclease activity of replicative DNA polymerase excises misincorporated nucleotides during DNA synthesis, but these events are rare. Therefore, we were surprised to find that T7 replisome excised nearly 7% of correctly incorporated nucleotides during leading and lagging strand syntheses. Similar observations with two other DNA polymerases establish its generality. We show that excessive excision of correctly incorporated nucleotides is not due to events such as processive degradation of nascent DNA or spontaneous partitioning of primer-end to the exonuclease site as a "cost of proofreading". Instead, we show that replication hurdles, including secondary structures in template, slowed helicase, or uncoupled helicase-polymerase, increase DNA reannealing and polymerase backtracking, and generate frayed primer-ends that are shuttled to the exonuclease site and excised efficiently. Our studies indicate that active-site shuttling occurs at a high frequency, and we propose that it serves as a proofreading mechanism to protect primer-ends from mutagenic extensions.

An integrative approach identifies direct targets of the late viral transcription complex and an expanded promoter recognition motif in Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus.

The structural proteins of DNA viruses are generally encoded by late genes, whose expression relies on recruitment of the host transcriptional machinery only after the onset of viral genome replication. ß and γ-herpesviruses encode a unique six-member viral pre-initiation complex (vPIC) for this purpose, although how the vPIC directs specific activation of late genes remains largely unknown. The specificity underlying late transcription is particularly notable given that late gene promoters are unusually small, with a modified TATA-box being the only recognizable element. Here, we explored the basis for this specificity using an integrative approach to evaluate vPIC-dependent gene expression combined with promoter occupancy during Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) infection. This approach distinguished the direct and indirect targets of the vPIC, ultimately revealing a novel promoter motif critical for KSHV vPIC binding. Additionally, we found that the KSHV vPIC component ORF24 is required for efficient viral DNA replication and identified a ORF24 binding element in the origin of replication that is necessary for late gene promoter activation. Together, these results identify an elusive element that contributes to vPIC specificity and suggest novel links between KSHV DNA replication and late transcription.

Correlating Transcription Initiation and Conformational Changes by a Single-Subunit RNA Polymerase with Near Base-Pair Resolution.

We provide a comprehensive analysis of transcription in real time by T7 RNA Polymerase (RNAP) using single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer by monitoring the entire life history of transcription initiation, including stepwise RNA synthesis with near base-pair resolution, abortive cycling, and transition into elongation. Kinetically branching pathways were observed for abortive initiation with an RNAP either recycling on the same promoter or exchanging with another RNAP from solution. We detected fast and slow populations of RNAP in their transition into elongation, consistent with the efficient and delayed promoter release, respectively, observed in ensemble studies. Real-time monitoring of abortive cycling using three-probe analysis showed that the initiation events are stochastically branched into productive and failed transcription. The abortive products are generated primarily from initiation events that fail to progress to elongation, and a majority of the productive events transit to elongation without making abortive products.

Human mitochondrial transcription factors TFAM and TFB2M work synergistically in promoter melting during transcription initiation.

Human mitochondrial DNA is transcribed by POLRMT with the help of two initiation factors, TFAM and TFB2M. The current model postulates that the role of TFAM is to recruit POLRMT and TFB2M to melt the promoter. However, we show that TFAM has 'post-recruitment' roles in promoter melting and RNA synthesis, which were revealed by studying the pre-initiation steps of promoter binding, bending and melting, and abortive RNA synthesis. Our 2-aminopurine mapping studies show that the LSP (Light Strand Promoter) is melted from -4 to +1 in the open complex with all three proteins and from -4 to +3 with addition of ATP. Our equilibrium binding studies show that POLRMT forms stable complexes with TFB2M or TFAM on LSP with low-nanomolar Kd values, but these two-component complexes lack the mechanism to efficiently melt the promoter. This indicates that POLRMT needs both TFB2M and TFAM to melt the promoter. Additionally, POLRMT+TFB2M makes 2-mer abortives on LSP, but longer RNAs are observed only with TFAM. These results are explained by TFAM playing a role in promoter melting and/or stabilization of the open complex on LSP. Based on our results, we propose a refined model of transcription initiation by the human mitochondrial transcription machinery.

A Multi-network Approach Identifies Protein-Specific Co-expression in Asymptomatic and Symptomatic Alzheimer's Disease.

Here, we report proteomic analyses of 129 human cortical tissues to define changes associated with the asymptomatic and symptomatic stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Network analysis revealed 16 modules of co-expressed proteins, 10 of which correlated with AD phenotypes. A subset of modules overlapped with RNA co-expression networks, including those associated with neurons and astroglial cell types, showing altered expression in AD, even in the asymptomatic stages. Overlap of RNA and protein networks was otherwise modest, with many modules specific to the proteome, including those linked to microtubule function and inflammation. Proteomic modules were validated in an independent cohort, demonstrating some module expression changes unique to AD and several observed in other neurodegenerative diseases. AD genetic risk loci were concentrated in glial-related modules in the proteome and transcriptome, consistent with their causal role in AD. This multi-network analysis reveals protein- and disease-specific pathways involved in the etiology, initiation, and progression of AD.

The Yeast Mitochondrial RNA Polymerase and Transcription Factor Complex Catalyzes Efficient Priming of DNA Synthesis on Single-stranded DNA.

Primases use single-stranded (ss) DNAs as templates to synthesize short oligoribonucleotide primers that initiate lagging strand DNA synthesis or reprime DNA synthesis after replication fork collapse, but the origin of this activity in the mitochondria remains unclear. Herein, we show that the Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitochondrial RNA polymerase (Rpo41) and its transcription factor (Mtf1) is an efficient primase that initiates DNA synthesis on ssDNA coated with the yeast mitochondrial ssDNA-binding protein, Rim1. Both Rpo41 and Rpo41-Mtf1 can synthesize short and long RNAs on ssDNA template and prime DNA synthesis by the yeast mitochondrial DNA polymerase Mip1. However, the ssDNA-binding protein Rim1 severely inhibits the RNA synthesis activity of Rpo41, but not the Rpo41-Mtf1 complex, which continues to prime DNA synthesis efficiently in the presence of Rim1. We show that RNAs as short as 10-12 nt serve as primers for DNA synthesis. Characterization of the RNA-DNA products shows that Rpo41 and Rpo41-Mtf1 have slightly different priming specificity. However, both prefer to initiate with ATP from short priming sequences such as 3'-TCC, TTC, and TTT, and the consensus sequence is 3'-Pu(Py)2-3 Based on our studies, we propose that Rpo41-Mtf1 is an attractive candidate for serving as the primase to initiate lagging strand DNA synthesis during normal replication and/or to restart stalled replication from downstream ssDNA.

Methods to study the coupling between replicative helicase and leading-strand DNA polymerase at the replication fork.

Replicative helicases work closely with the replicative DNA polymerases to ensure that the genomic DNA is copied in a timely and error free manner. In the replisomes of prokaryotes, mitochondria, and eukaryotes, the helicase and DNA polymerase enzymes are functionally and physically coupled at the leading strand replication fork and rely on each other for optimal DNA strand separation and synthesis activities. In this review, we describe pre-steady state kinetic methods to quantify the base pair unwinding-synthesis rate constant, a fundamental parameter to understand how the helicase and polymerase help each other during leading strand replication. We describe a robust method to measure the chemical step size of the helicase-polymerase complex that determines how the two motors are energetically coupled while tracking along the DNA. The 2-aminopurine fluorescence-based method provide structural information on the leading strand helicase-polymerase complex, such as the distance between the two enzymes, their relative positions at the replication fork, and their roles in fork junction melting. The combined information garnered from these methods informs on the mutual dependencies between the helicase and DNA polymerase enzymes, their stepping mechanism, and their individual functions at the replication fork during leading strand replication.

Cooperative base pair melting by helicase and polymerase positioned one nucleotide from each other.

Leading strand DNA synthesis requires functional coupling between replicative helicase and DNA polymerase (DNAP) enzymes, but the structural and mechanistic basis of coupling is poorly understood. This study defines the precise positions of T7 helicase and T7 DNAP at the replication fork junction with single-base resolution to create a structural model that explains the mutual stimulation of activities. Our 2-aminopurine studies show that helicase and polymerase both participate in DNA melting, but each enzyme melts the junction base pair partially. When combined, the junction base pair is melted cooperatively provided the helicase is located one nucleotide ahead of the primer-end. The synergistic shift in equilibrium of junction base pair melting by combined enzymes explains the cooperativity, wherein helicase stimulates the polymerase by promoting dNTP binding (decreasing dNTP Km), polymerase stimulates the helicase by increasing the unwinding rate-constant (kcat), consequently the combined enzymes unwind DNA with kinetic parameters resembling enzymes translocating on single-stranded DNA.

Finding the right match fast.

DNA recombinases face the daunting task of locating and pairing up specific sequences among millions of base pairs in a genome, all within about an hour. Qi et al. show that recombinases solve this problem by searching in 8-nt microhomology units, reducing the search space and accelerating the homology search.

Relaxed rotational and scrunching changes in P266L mutant of T7 RNA polymerase reduce short abortive RNAs while delaying transition into elongation.

Abortive cycling is a universal feature of transcription initiation catalyzed by DNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RNAP). In bacteriophage T7 RNAP, mutation of proline 266 to leucine (P266L) in the C-linker region connecting the N-terminal promoter binding domain with the C-terminal catalytic domain drastically reduces short abortive products (4-7 nt) while marginally increasing long abortives (9-11 nt). Here we have investigated the transcription initiation pathway of P266L with the goal of understanding the mechanistic basis for short and long abortive synthesis. We show that the P266L mutation does not alter the affinity for the promoter, mildly affects promoter opening, and increases the +1/+2 GTP K(d) by 2-fold. However, unlike wild-type T7 RNAP that undergoes stepwise rotation of the promoter binding domain and DNA scrunching during initial transcription, the P266L mutant does not undergo coupled rotational/scrunching movements until 7 nt RNA synthesis. The lack of rotation/scrunching correlates with greater stabilities of the initiation complexes of the P266L and decreased short abortive products. The results indicate that the increased flexibility in the C-linker due to P266L mutation enables T7 RNAP to absorb the stress from the growing RNA:DNA hybrid thereby decreasing short abortive products. Increased C-linker flexibility, however, has an adverse effect of delaying the transition into elongation by 1-2 nt, which gives rise to long abortive products. However, a mutation in the upstream promoter region greatly decreases long abortive products in P266L reactions, rendering the combination of P266L and A-15C promoter a desirable pair for efficient in vitro transcription for RNA production. We conclude that the conformational rigidity in the C-linker region conferred by the proline at position 266 is responsible for the undesirable short abortive products, but the rigidity is critical for efficient promoter clearance and transition into elongation.

Human mitochondrial DNA helicase TWINKLE is both an unwinding and annealing helicase.

TWINKLE is a nucleus-encoded human mitochondrial (mt)DNA helicase. Point mutations in TWINKLE are associated with heritable neuromuscular diseases characterized by deletions in the mtDNA. To understand the biochemical basis of these diseases, it is important to define the roles of TWINKLE in mtDNA metabolism by studying its enzymatic activities. To this end, we purified native TWINKLE from Escherichia coli. The recombinant TWINKLE assembles into hexamers and higher oligomers, and addition of MgUTP stabilizes hexamers over higher oligomers. Probing into the DNA unwinding activity, we discovered that the efficiency of unwinding is greatly enhanced in the presence of a heterologous single strand-binding protein or a single-stranded (ss) DNA that is complementary to the unwound strand. We show that TWINKLE, although a helicase, has an antagonistic activity of annealing two complementary ssDNAs that interferes with unwinding in the absence of gp2.5 or ssDNA trap. Furthermore, only ssDNA and not double-stranded (ds)DNA competitively inhibits the annealing activity, although both DNAs bind with high affinities. This implies that dsDNA binds to a site that is distinct from the ssDNA-binding site that promotes annealing. Fluorescence anisotropy competition binding experiments suggest that TWINKLE has more than one ssDNA-binding sites, and we speculate that a surface-exposed ssDNA-specific site is involved in catalyzing DNA annealing. We propose that the strand annealing activity of TWINKLE may play a role in recombination-mediated replication initiation found in the mitochondria of mammalian brain and heart or in replication fork regression during repair of damaged DNA replication forks.

Dynamic coupling between the motors of DNA replication: hexameric helicase, DNA polymerase, and primase.

Helicases are molecular motor proteins that couple NTP hydrolysis to directional movement along nucleic acids. A class of helicases characterized by their ring-shaped hexameric structures translocate processively and unidirectionally along single-stranded (ss) DNA to separate the strands of double-stranded (ds) DNA, aiding both in the initiation and fork progression during DNA replication. These replicative ring-shaped helicases are found from virus to human. We review recent biochemical and structural studies that have expanded our understanding on how hexameric helicases use the NTPase reaction to translocate on ssDNA, unwind dsDNA, and how their physical and functional interactions with the DNA polymerase and primase enzymes coordinate replication of the two strands of dsDNA.