Brief hypoxia differentially regulates LPS-induced IL-1beta and TNF-alpha gene transcription in RAW 264.7 cells.

Episodes of tissue hypoxia and reoxygenation frequently occur during gram-negative bacteremia that progresses to septic shock. However, few studies have evaluated modulation by hypoxia and reoxygenation of the proinflammatory cytokine gene expression that is normally induced by gram-negative bacteremia or endotoxemia. In buffer-perfused organs, hypoxia downregulates Escherichia coli-induced expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin (IL)-1beta in the liver but upregulates these cytokines in the lungs. To identify molecular mechanisms underlying these events, we investigated the effects of brief (1.5-h) hypoxia on TNF-alpha and IL-1beta expression in cultured RAW 264.7 cells during their continuous exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxin derived from E. coli (serotype 055:B5) for up to 24 h. IL-1beta and TNF-alpha concentrations in cell lysates and culture supernatants were measured by ELISA, and steady-state mRNA was measured by Northern analysis. LPS-induced IL-1beta synthesis was downregulated by hypoxia at both the protein and mRNA levels despite no change in cellular redox status as measured by levels of GSH. In contrast, LPS-induced TNF-alpha production was unaffected by hypoxia as assessed by cell lysate mRNA and lysate and supernatant protein levels. Nuclear runoff analysis showed that downregulation of IL-1beta gene expression by hypoxia occurred transcriptionally. Allopurinol or catalase treatment did not alter modulation of LPS-induced IL-1beta expression by hypoxia, suggesting that this suppression was not caused by reactive oxygen species. Cycloheximide pretreatment suggested that hypoxia-induced downregulation of IL-1beta expression did not require de novo protein synthesis.

Plasmodium falciparum: effects of membrane modulating agents on direct binding of rhoptry proteins to human erythrocytes.

We studied the effects of membrane modulation on the interaction of Plasmodium falciparum rhoptry proteins of 140/130/110 kDa (Rhop-H) with human and mouse erythrocytes. Cells treated with 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl-8-(cis-2-n-octylcyclopropyl)octanoate, myristoleyl alcohol, and proteins extracted with sublytic concentrations of membrane solubilizing detergents were used in erythrocyte binding assays. Protein binding was evaluated by immunoblotting using Rhop-H- and SERA-specific antisera, 1B9, K15, and 5E3, respectively. Protein binding to liposomes prepared with dipalmitoyl-L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) or dilauroyl-L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine (DLPC) was also examined. Our results show that erythrocyte membrane modulation markedly enhanced direct Rhop-H binding to intact human erythrocytes. Binding of SERA to intact human erythrocytes appeared unaffected. Both DPPC and DLPC liposomes had similar Rhop-H and SERA protein binding activities. However, binding to DLPC liposomes was reduced. Rhop-H and SERA extracted with the detergents octanoyl-N-methylglucamide, decanoyl-N-methylglucamide, sodium deoxycholate, and 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propane sulfonate bound directly to intact human erythrocytes, probably by partitioning hydrophobically into the membranes. Sodium carbonate treatment demonstrated a nonintegral association of Rhop-H with the erythrocyte membrane during invasion. Membrane modulation may expose cryptic phospholipid binding sites in the bilayer.

Monoclonal antibody epitope mapping of Plasmodium falciparum rhoptry proteins.

Plasmodium falciparum rhoptry proteins of the 140/130/110-kDa high molecular weight complex (HMWC) are secreted into the erythrocyte membrane during merozoite invasion. Epitopes of membrane-associated HMWC proteins can be detected using rhoptry-specific antibodies by immunofluorescence assays. Phospholipase treatment of ring-infected intact human erythrocytes, membrane ghosts, and inside-out vesicles results in the release of the HMWC as demonstrated by immunoblotting. We characterized the membrane-associating properties of the 110-kDa protein in more detail. PLA2 from three different sources; bee venom, Naja naja venom, and porcine pancreas, were examined and all were equally effective in releasing the 110-kDa protein. Furthermore, PLA2 activity was inhibited by o-phenanthroline, quinacrine, maleic anhydride, and partially by p-bromophenacyl bromide, indicating that the activity of PLA2 is specific. Using sequential protease and phospholipase digestion experiments to map the immunoreactive and functional epitopes of the 110-kDa protein, a 35-kDa protease-resistant protein associated with mouse and human erythrocyte membranes was identified. Limited proteolysis of the 110-kDa protein and analysis by immunoblotting demonstrated several immunoreactive cleavage products, including a highly protease-resistant peptide fragment of approximately 35-kDa which corresponds to the membrane-associated protein. Epitope mapping of the 130-kDa rhoptry protein resulted in a different pattern of cleavage products. Stage-specific metabolic labeling of P. falciparum with [3H] palmitate and [3H] myristate was performed to determine the lipophilic properties of the HMWC. Results showed the incorporation of label into proteins of approximate molecular weight 200 and 45-kDa, predominantly in the late schizont stage. Interestingly, proteins of 140 and 110/100-kDa, corresponding to [35S] methionine-labeled proteins were labeled with [3H]palmitate in ring-infected erythrocyte membranes. However, these proteins were not immunoprecipitated by a rhoptry protein-specific monoclonal antibody, 1B9. Similar label incorporation was not obtained with [3H]myristate. In Triton X-114 solubility studies, the HMWC proteins partitioned into the aqueous phase, suggesting that they are not integral membrane proteins. In addition, the proteins were extracted by 100 mM Na2CO3, pH 11.5, and immunoprecipitated by rhoptry-specific antibody. These results suggest that the HMWC proteins may exist in a soluble and membrane bound form. The latter may participate in membrane expansion and the formation of the parasitophorous vacuole during merozoite invasion.