Item method directed forgetting occurs independently of borderline personality traits, even for borderline-salient items.

Clinical populations sometimes demonstrate difficulties forgetting stimuli related to their trauma-related disorder, perhaps because their intense personal connection to these stimuli produce deficits in the inhibitory control abilities necessary for forgetting. The present work examined this possibility for people who have high levels of traits implicated in borderline personality disorder (BPD). In two well-powered studies, we found no evidence for deficits in forgetting specific to BPD traits, even for people with clinically significant levels of the traits, contrary to previous studies. The present experiments updated the designs from earlier experiments to employ the most contemporary methods to examine directed forgetting recommended by recent reviews. With these improved methods, Study 1 found that participants showed significant directed forgetting for BPD-related words independent of their level of BPD traits, perhaps because the BPD-related words were so strongly associated with one another. Study 2 found that when we removed the strong relatedness between the stimuli, forgetting of BPD-relevant words was significant and did not interact with BPD symptomology. We concluded that in contrast to people with PTSD who show specific inhibitory deficits for trauma-related works, people with BPD show normal, intact inhibitory control even for words that they should find threatening.

Setting a bad precedent: Sexual compliance in undergraduate women's sexually coercive relationships.

OBJECTIVE: Undergraduate women are more likely to comply with unwanted sexual behavior if they have experienced sexual coercion from their partner. We investigated whether the severity and frequency of sexual coercion was associated with sexual compliance. PARTICIPANTS: A sample of 195 female university students in committed relationships. METHODS: Participants completed an online survey about sexually coercive experiences in their relationship and hypothetical sexual compliance. RESULTS: We found that undergraduate women exposed to more frequent mild sexual coercion from their current partner predicted they would be more compliant with hypothetical sexual coercion from that partner-both mild and severe. CONCLUSION: There may be a precedent for sexual compliance in some sexually coercive relationships; this precedent seems to be gradually set. Prevention programs should emphasize that even the mildest forms of sexual coercion can potentially have negative implications for a relationship.

Parental psychopathology and expectations for the futures of children with autism spectrum disorder.

BACKGROUND: The influence of parental psychopathology and parental expectations on child well-being is well documented among typically developing populations. However, to date little research has examined the relationship among these factors in families of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study examines an observed relationship between parental psychopathology and expectations in families with children with ASD in the light of research in other populations. METHOD: Twenty-four parents of children diagnosed with ASD were assessed for symptoms of psychopathology. Parents completed measures of child ASD severity as well as their expectations for possible outcomes of their child. RESULTS: Two main effects were found: higher parental psychopathology and ASD severity were both related to lower expectations. Interaction of ASD severity and parental psychopathology in relation to parent expectations was not observed. CONCLUSION: These results emphasize the necessity of providing services not only to individuals diagnosed with ASD, but to caregivers as well.

Ethnic identity in context of ethnic discrimination: When does gender and other-group orientation increase risk for depressive symptoms for immigrant-origin young adults?

OBJECTIVES: Ethnic discrimination increases risk for depressive symptoms, but less is known about factors that influence the impact of this cultural challenge on psychological adjustment for immigrant-origin college students. Sociocultural identity development is especially relevant during emerging adulthood. Studies examining exacerbating or buffering impacts of ethnic identity have yielded mixed results. The current study examines conditions under which one aspect of ethnic identity, affirmation/belonging, moderates the impact of perceived ethnic discrimination stress on depressive symptoms. This was expected to vary by other-group orientation and gender, in accordance with rejection sensitivity theory. METHOD: A multicultural sample of 290 non-White immigrant-origin emerging adults (aged 18-25) from mixed cultural backgrounds and generational statuses attending a college in the Southeastern United States completed electronic self-report questionnaires. RESULTS: More robust support was provided for social identity theory rather than rejection sensitivity theory: stronger affirmation/belonging was inversely associated with depressive symptoms across the sample, with a notable buffering impact for women. Trend-level results indicated a protective effect for those endorsing stronger affirmation/belonging paired with greater other-group orientation. Additionally, women with weaker affirmation/belonging demonstrated greater increased depressive symptoms compared to men with weaker affirmation/belonging. CONCLUSIONS: For this sample, social identity theory was relevant to the impact of affirmation/belonging on the relation between ethnic discrimination and depressive symptoms contingent on other-group orientation and gender. This finding underscores the importance of examining ethnic identity in a nuanced manner. Implications for these results extend to college counseling centers, where inclusion of sociocultural identity in case conceptualization would be useful. (PsycINFO Database Record

Reinforcement Sensitivity and Social Anxiety in Combat Veterans.

OBJECTIVE: The present study tested the hypothesis that low behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity is associated with social anxiety in combat veterans. METHOD: Self-report measures of reinforcement sensitivity, combat exposure, social interaction anxiety, and social observation anxiety were administered to 197 Iraq/Afghanistan combat veterans. RESULTS: As expected, combat exposure, behavioral inhibition system (BIS) sensitivity, and fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) sensitivity were positively associated with both social interaction anxiety and social observation anxiety. In contrast, BAS sensitivity was negatively associated with social interaction anxiety only. An analysis of the BAS subscales revealed that the Reward Responsiveness subscale was the only BAS subscale associated with social interaction anxiety. BAS-Reward Responsiveness was also associated with social observation anxiety. CONCLUSION: The findings from the present research provide further evidence that low BAS sensitivity may be associated with social anxiety over and above the effects of BIS and FFFS sensitivity.

The Invalidating Childhood Environment Scale (ICES): psychometric properties and relationship to borderline personality symptomatology.

The objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Invalidating Childhood Environment Scale (ICES; Mountford, Corstorphine, Tomlinson, & Waller, 2004), a measure designed to retrospectively assess exposure to parental invalidation. The ICES was administered to a sample of female college students along with measures of parental bonding and borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptomatology. In contrast with previous findings, the ICES demonstrated excellent internal consistency within a nonclinical sample. It also correlated in the predicted directions with measures of parental bonding and BPD symptomatology. Taken together, these findings suggest that the ICES is a promising retrospective measure of parental invalidation. They also provide some support for the hypothesized link between parental invalidation and BPD symptomatology and suggest that additional research with clinical samples is needed.

Comments by ABCT's first female president on overcoming the glass ceiling.

At the annual convention of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies in New York City in November 2009, a most interesting panel discussion occurred: Overcoming the Glass Ceiling: A Conversation With the Trailblazers. This article is a written version of my oral presentation at this panel discussion in my role as ABCT's first female president.

BIS and BAS interact with perceived parental affectionless control to predict personality disorder symptomatology.

The objective of this study was to examine if and how two basic dimensions of temperament-behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity-might interact with exposure to perceived parental affectionless control (AFC) to predict personality disorder (PD) symptomatology. Measures of BIS, BAS, AFC, and PD symptomatology were administered to a large nonclinical sample (n = 318). As predicted, exposure to AFC was positively associated with PD symptoms in general, BIS was positively associated with Cluster A and C symptoms, and BAS was positively associated with Cluster B symptoms. BIS and BAS were also found to interact with each other to predict Cluster B symptomatology. In addition, BIS, BAS, and maternal AFC interacted to predict Cluster A symptomatology. In the latter case, it was found that individuals who reported high BIS, high BAS, and high maternal AFC reported the highest overall level of Cluster A symptoms.

An examination of the relationship between behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity and social interaction anxiety.

BACKGROUND: Both behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity have been proposed to play a role in social anxiety; however, findings concerning the relationship between BAS and social anxiety have been mixed. Moreover, recent evidence suggests that low levels of BAS may only be associated with the social interaction subdimension of social anxiety. METHOD: Measures of BIS, BAS, social interaction anxiety, and social observation anxiety were administered to three large analogue samples. RESULTS: As hypothesized, BAS was inversely related to social interaction anxiety, but was unrelated to social observation anxiety across all three samples. In addition, individuals with generalized social fears were found to report both higher levels of BIS and lower levels of BAS compared to individuals with few or specific social fears. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that a complete motivational account of generalized social anxiety should include both BIS and BAS.

Self-reported ADHD symptoms among college students: item positioning affects symptom endorsement rates.

OBJECTIVE: The effect of manipulating item positioning on self-reported ADHD symptoms was examined. We assessed whether listing DSM-IV ADHD symptoms serially or interspersed affected (a) the correlation between ADHD symptoms and (b) the rate of symptom endorsement. METHOD: In Study 1, an undergraduate sample (n = 102) completed a measure that listed DSM-IV ADHD symptoms serially and a measure that interspersed DSM-IV ADHD items among non-ADHD symptoms. In Study 2, a separate undergraduate sample (n = 240) completed a measure that listed DSM-IV ADHD symptoms serially and another ADHD measure that interspersed DSM-IV ADHD items among non-DSM-IV ADHD items. RESULTS: Item positioning did not affect the correlation between symptoms, but did reveal a significant bias in the rate of symptom endorsements. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that there is significant variability in ADHD symptom endorsements resulting from item positioning. This effect has implications for clinical assessment and epidemiological research of ADHD among college students.

Sensitivity to punishment and low maternal care account for the link between bulimic and social anxiety symptomology.

OBJECTIVE: The current study examined the joint effect of personality and parenting factors on the prediction of bulimia nervosa (BN) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) symptomology in a sample of female college students. The study also tested whether personality and parenting factors might account for the association between BN and SAD symptoms. METHOD: One-hundred twenty-eight participants completed self-report measures assessing maternal care (MC), maternal overprotection, sensitivity to punishment (SP), sensitivity to reward (SR), and BN and SAD symptomology. RESULTS: SP, SR, and MC each uniquely predicted BN symptoms, whereas only SP and MC predicted SAD symptoms. High SP interacted with low MC to predict BN and SAD symptoms over the main effects. In addition, SP, MC, and the interaction term SP x MC mediated the association between SAD and BN symptoms. CONCLUSION: High SP and low MC appear to account for the link between BN and SAD symptomology, whereas high SR appears to distinguish the disorders.

The relationship of Asperger's characteristics and schizotypal personality traits in a non-clinical adult sample.

The study examines the relationship between Asperger's Disorder (AD) and Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD), mutually exclusive but similar diagnoses [DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: Author]. The literature and comparison of diagnostic criteria suggest that the two disorders may overlap: AD social impairment with SPD interpersonal problems and AD communication deficits with SPD disorganized features. Questionnaire measures of AD and SPD were administered to a large non-clinical adult sample. Consistent with expectations, the Asperger's and Schizotypal questionnaires were positively correlated. Further, the social-interpersonal and communication-disorganized areas were positively correlated, though the relationship between social-interpersonal areas is particularly strong. Future research should continue to explore the relationship between AD and schizotypy to confirm current findings and improve understanding of distinctions between the disorders.

Measuring homework compliance in cognitive-behavioral therapy for adolescent depression: review, preliminary findings, and implications for theory and practice.

Despite the importance placed on completion of extra-session homework in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), a review of the available literature suggests there is much about the nature of homework compliance that remains to be empirically evaluated. This is especially true among youth receiving CBT. The present study begins to address how best to measure homework compliance and offers a fine-grained, single-case analysis of homework compliance during acute treatment with depressed adolescents. The results demonstrate that 56% of homework assignments were completed. Also observed was substantial within-subject temporal variability in homework compliance and a tendency for compliance to decrease during the course of treatment. These data call into question the adequacy of any static aggregate measure of homework compliance and have implications for both researchers and clinicians.

A modified DBT skills training program for oppositional defiant adolescents: promising preliminary findings.

A modified skills training component of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) was implemented in a group therapy format for non-suicidal outpatient young adolescents who met criteria for oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Thirty-two youths completed the 16-week program, as well as pre- and post-treatment measures. The treatment was effective not only in decreasing negative behaviors, but also in increasing positive behaviors, per caregiver report. The youths reported a significant reduction in externalizing and internalizing symptoms and in depression. Reliable change indices indicated that far more participants were in the improved category than in the deteriorated category on the measures of interest. Despite the absence of control groups but consistent with the treatment outcome research literature for DBT-based treatments for other disorders, this study demonstrated that DBT skills training is feasible and shows promise in improving the behavior of ODD young adolescents.

Anxiety and depression symptoms in psychometrically identified schizotypy.

The neurodevelopmental vulnerability for schizophrenia appears to be expressed across a dynamic continuum of adjustment referred to as schizotypy. This model suggests that nonpsychotic schizotypic individuals should exhibit mild and transient forms of symptoms seen in full-blown schizophrenia. Given that depression and anxiety are reported to be comorbid with schizophrenia, the present study examined the relationship of psychometrically defined schizotypy with symptoms of depression and anxiety in a college student sample (n=1258). A series of confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a three-factor solution of positive schizotypy, negative schizotypy, and negative affect provided the best solution for self-report measures of schizotypy, anxiety, and depression. As hypothesized, the model indicated that symptoms of depression and anxiety are more strongly associated with the positive-symptom dimension of schizotypy than with the negative-symptom dimension. This is consistent with studies of schizophrenic patients and longitudinal findings that positive-symptom schizotypes are at risk for both mood and non-mood psychotic disorders, while negative-symptom schizotypes appear more specifically at risk for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.

Social rejection and ADHD in young adults: an analogue experiment.

Poor outcomes in ADHD may be related to problematic social functioning and consequences of social rejection. This study examines how ADHD symptom expression affects mood and social rejection. Working from findings in depression that describe maintenance through negative interpersonal interactions, the authors seek to examine this theory's applicability to poor outcomes in ADHD. In a completely randomized design, 130 participants are exposed to one of several videotape segments that include displays of ADHD, depression, and social anxiety. A normal control is also used. All abnormal videotapes are met with greater rejection than the control. Displays of ADHD elicit similar levels of rejection to those elicited by displays of depression. Additionally, ADHD elicits greater levels of hostile mood, whereas depression elicits high levels of depression and fatigue. Implications for an interpersonal theory of vulnerability in ADHD are discussed along with implications for future research, prevention, and intervention.

Treatment utility of psychological assessment.

This article focuses on treatment utility. A definition of treatment utility was provided by S. C. Hayes, R. O. Nelson, and R. B. Jarrett (1987): "We propose to use the phrase the treatment utility of assessment to refer to the degree to which assessment is shown to contribute to beneficial treatment outcome" (p. 963). Various methodologies to examine the treatment utility of assessment are summarized. Treatment utility studies using various assessment procedures (i.e., diagnosis and functional analysis) and various disorders (i.e., unipolar depression, social or interpersonal problems, and phobic disorders) are described. Suggestions are made as to when elaborated assessment and/or treatment utility studies are needed. Limitations on the generalizability of results of any particular treatment utility study are presented. Despite progress, for most assessment procedures and devices, the treatment utility question remains; What is the degree to which assessment is shown to contribute to beneficial treatment outcome?