Acute and long-term outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection in school-aged children in England: Study protocol for the joint analysis of the COVID-19 schools infection survey (SIS) and the COVID-19 mapping and mitigation in schools (CoMMinS) study.

BACKGROUND: The symptom profiles of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection and long-COVID in children and young people (CYP), risk factors, and associated healthcare needs, are poorly defined. The Schools Infection Survey 1 (SIS-1) was a nationwide study of SARS-CoV-2 infection in primary and secondary schools in England during the 2020/21 school year. The Covid-19 Mapping and Mitigation in Schools (CoMMinS) study was conducted in schools in the Bristol area over a similar period. Both studies conducted testing to identify current and previous SARS-CoV-2 infection, and recorded symptoms and school attendance. These research data have been linked to routine electronic health record (EHR) data. AIMS: To better understand the short- and long-term consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and their risk factors, in CYP. METHODS: Retrospective cohort and nested case-control analyses will be conducted for SIS-1 and CoMMinS data linked to EHR data for the association between (1) acute symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and risk factors; (2) SARS-CoV-2 infection and long-term effects on health: (a) persistent symptoms; (b) any new diagnosis; (c) a new prescription in primary care; (d) health service attendance; (e) a high rate of school absence. RESULTS: Our study will improve understanding of long-COVID in CYP by characterising the trajectory of long-COVID in CYP in terms of things like symptoms and diagnoses of conditions. The research will inform which groups of CYP are more likely to get acute- and long-term outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and patterns of related healthcare-seeking behaviour, relevant for healthcare service planning. Digested information will be produced for affected families, doctors, schools, and the public, as appropriate. CONCLUSION: Linked SIS-1 and CoMMinS data represent a unique and rich resource for understanding the impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on children's health, benefiting from enhanced SARS-CoV-2 testing and ability to assess a wide range of outcomes.

Factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine uptake in adolescents: a national cross-sectional study, August 2021-January 2022, England.

OBJECTIVES: To assess socioeconomic and geographical factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine uptake in pupils attending state-funded secondary schools in England. DESIGN: Cross-sectional observational study. SETTING: State-funded schools in England. PARTICIPANTS: Pupils aged 12-17 years attending state-funded schools in England for the academic year 2021/2022. OUTCOME MEASURES: Demographic, socioeconomic and geographical factors associated with vaccination uptake. We linked individual-level data from the English Schools Census to the National Immunisation Management System to obtain COVID-19 vaccination status of 3.2 million adolescents. We used multivariable logistic regression to assess demographic, socioeconomic and geographical factors associated with vaccination. RESULTS: By 9 January 2022, 56.8% of adolescents aged 12-17 years old had received at least one dose, with uptake increasing from 48.7% in those aged 12 years old to 77.2% in those aged 17 years old. Among adolescents aged 12-15 years old, there were large variations in vaccine uptake by region and ethnic group. Pupils who spoke English as an additional language (38.2% vs 55.5%), with special educational needs (48.1% vs 53.5%), eligible for free school meals (35.9% vs 58.9%) and lived in more deprived areas (36.1% in most deprived vs 70.3% in least deprived) had lower vaccine uptake. Socioeconomic variables had greater impact on the odds of being vaccinated than geographical variables. School-level analysis found wide variation in vaccine uptake between schools even within the same region. Schools with higher proportions of pupils eligible for free school meals had lower vaccine uptake. CONCLUSIONS: We found large differences in vaccine uptake by geographical region and ethnicity. Socioeconomic variables had a greater impact on the odds of being vaccinated than geographical variables. Further research is required to identify evidence-based interventions to improve vaccine uptake in adolescents.

Timing of seasonal influenza epidemics for 25 countries in Africa during 2010-19: a retrospective analysis.

BACKGROUND: Using country-specific surveillance data to describe influenza epidemic activity could inform decisions on the timing of influenza vaccination. We analysed surveillance data from African countries to characterise the timing of seasonal influenza epidemics to inform national vaccination strategies. METHODS: We used publicly available sentinel data from African countries reporting to the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance and Response FluNet platform that had 3-10 years of data collected during 2010-19. We calculated a 3-week moving proportion of samples positive for influenza virus and assessed epidemic timing using an aggregate average method. The start and end of each epidemic were defined as the first week when the proportion of positive samples exceeded or went below the annual mean, respectively, for at least 3 consecutive weeks. We categorised countries into five epidemic patterns: northern hemisphere-dominant, with epidemics occurring in October-March; southern hemisphere-dominant, with epidemics occurring in April-September; primarily northern hemisphere with some epidemic activity in southern hemisphere months; primarily southern hemisphere with some epidemic activity in northern hemisphere months; and year-round influenza transmission without a discernible northern hemisphere or southern hemisphere predominance (no clear pattern). FINDINGS: Of the 34 countries reporting data to FluNet, 25 had at least 3 years of data, representing 46% of the countries in Africa and 89% of Africa's population. Study countries reported RT-PCR respiratory virus results for a total of 503 609 specimens (median 12 971 [IQR 9607-20 960] per country-year), of which 74 001 (15%; median 2078 [IQR 1087-3008] per country-year) were positive for influenza viruses. 248 epidemics occurred across 236 country-years of data (median 10 [range 7-10] per country). Six (24%) countries had a northern hemisphere pattern (Algeria, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Morocco, Niger, and Tunisia). Eight (32%) had a primarily northern hemisphere pattern with some southern hemisphere epidemics (Cameroon, Ethiopia, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, and Togo). Three (12%) had a primarily southern hemisphere pattern with some northern hemisphere epidemics (Ghana, Kenya, and Uganda). Three (12%) had a southern hemisphere pattern (Central African Republic, South Africa, and Zambia). Five (20%) had no clear pattern (Côte d'Ivoire, DR Congo, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Rwanda). INTERPRETATION: Most countries had identifiable influenza epidemic periods that could be used to inform authorities of non-seasonal and seasonal influenza activity, guide vaccine timing, and promote timely interventions. FUNDING: None. TRANSLATIONS: For the Berber, Luganda, Xhosa, Chewa, Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa and Afan Oromo translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Post-COVID-19 condition and persisting symptoms in English schoolchildren: repeated surveys to March 2022.

BACKGROUND: Both post-COVID-19 condition (long COVID) and the presence of persisting symptoms that do not meet formal definitions of post-COVID-19-condition may adversely affect quality of life and function. However, their prevalence among children and young people in England is unclear. METHODS: We used data from repeated surveys in a large cohort of English schoolchildren from the COVID-19 Schools Infection Survey (SIS) for the school year 2021/22 to describe the weighted prevalence of post-COVID-19-condition and compare persisting symptoms between individuals with a positive SARS-CoV-2 test and those with neither a positive test history nor suspected infection. RESULTS: Among 7797 children from 173 schools, 1.8% of primary school pupils (aged 4 to 11 years), 4.5% of secondary school pupils in years 7-11 (aged 11 to 16 years) and 6.9% of those in years 12-13 (aged 16 to 18 years) met a definition of post-COVID-19 condition in March 2022. Specific persisting symptoms such as anxiety or difficulty concentrating were frequently reported regardless of prior infection status and increased with age: 48.0% of primary school pupils, 52.9% of secondary school pupils in years 7-11 and 79.5% in years 12-13 reporting at least one symptom lasting more than 12 weeks. Persisting loss of smell and taste, cardiovascular and some systemic symptoms were more frequently reported by those with a previous positive test. CONCLUSIONS: We showed that ongoing symptoms were frequently reported by English schoolchildren regardless of SARS-CoV-2 test results and some specific symptoms such as loss of smell and taste were more prevalent in those with a positive test history. Our study emphasises the wide-ranging impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the health and wellbeing of children and young people.

Qualitative longitudinal research on the experience of implementing Covid-19 prevention in English schools.

Implementation studies rarely examine how health interventions are delivered in emergencies. Informed by May's general theory of implementation (GTI), we undertook qualitative longitudinal research to investigate how schools in England implemented Covid-19-prevention measures and how this evolved over the 2020-2021 school year in a rapidly changing epidemiological and policy context. We conducted 74 semi-structured interviews over two time-points with headteachers, teachers, parents and students across eight primary and secondary schools. School leaders rapidly made sense of government guidance despite many challenges. They developed and disseminated prevention plans to staff, parents and students. As defined by GTI, 'cognitive participation' and 'collective action' to enact handwashing, one-way systems within schools and enhanced cleaning were sustained over time. However, measures such as physical distancing and placing students in separated groups were perceived to conflict with schools' mission to promote student education and wellbeing. Commitment to implement these was initially high during the emergency phase but later fluctuated dependant on perceived risk and local disease epidemiology. They were not considered sustainable in the long term. Adherence to some measures, such as wearing face-coverings, initially considered unworkable, improved as they were routinised. Implementing home-based asymptomatic testing was considered feasible. Formal and informal processes of 'reflexive monitoring' by staff informed improvements in intervention workability and implementation. Leaders also developed skills and confidence, deciding on locally appropriate actions, some of which deviated from official guidance. However, over time, accumulating staff burnout and absence eroded school capacity to collectively enact implementation. Qualitative longitudinal research allowed us to understand how implementation in an emergency involved the above emergent processes. GTI was useful in understanding school implementation processes in a pandemic context but may need adaptation to take into account the changing and sometimes contradictory objectives, time-varying factors and feedback loops that can characterise implementation of health interventions in emergencies.

National and regional prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in primary and secondary school children in England: the School Infection Survey, a national open cohort study, November 2021SARS-CoV-2 antibody prevalence in school children.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 infection rates are likely to be underestimated in children because of asymptomatic or mild infections. We aim to estimate national and regional prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in primary (4-11 years old) and secondary (11-18 years old) school children between 10 November and 10 December 2021. METHODS: Cross-sectional surveillance in England using two-stage sampling, firstly stratifying into regions and selecting local authorities, then selecting schools according to a stratified sample within selected local authorities. Participants were sampled using a novel oral fluid-validated assay for SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid IgG antibodies. RESULTS: 4980 students from 117 state-funded schools (2706 from 83 primary schools, 2274 from 34 secondary schools) provided a valid sample. After weighting for age, sex, and ethnicity, and adjusting for assay accuracy, the national prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in primary school students, who were all unvaccinated, was 40.1% (95% CI 37.3-43.0). Antibody prevalence increased with age (p < 0.001) and was higher in urban than rural schools (p = 0.01). In secondary school students, the adjusted, weighted national prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies was 82.4% (95% CI 79.5-85.1); including 71.5% (95% CI 65.7-76.8) in unvaccinated and 97.5% (95% CI 96.1-98.5) in vaccinated students. Antibody prevalence increased with age (p < 0.001), and was not significantly different in urban versus rural students (p = 0.1). CONCLUSIONS: In November 2021, using a validated oral fluid assay, national SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence was estimated to be 40.1% in primary school students and 82.4% in secondary school students. In unvaccinated children, this was approximately threefold higher than confirmed infections highlighting the importance of seroprevalence studies to estimate prior exposure. DATA AVAILABILITY: Deidentified study data are available for access by accredited researchers in the ONS Secure Research Service (SRS) for accredited research purposes under part 5, chapter 5 of the Digital Economy Act 2017. For further information about accreditation, contact Research.support@ons.gov.uk or visit the SRS website.

Risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection in primary and secondary school students and staff in England in the 2020/2021 school year: a longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVES: Investigate risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infections in school students and staff. METHODS: In the 2020/2021 school year, we administered polymerase chain reaction, antibody tests, and questionnaires to a sample of primary and secondary school students and staff, with data linkage to COVID-19 surveillance. We fitted logistic regression models to identify the factors associated with infection. RESULTS: We included 6799 students and 5090 staff in the autumn and 11,952 students and 4569 staff in the spring/summer terms. Infections in students in autumn 2020 were related to the percentage of students eligible for free school meals. We found no statistical association between infection risk in primary and secondary schools and reported contact patterns between students and staff in either period in our study. Using public transports was associated with increased risk in autumn in students (adjusted odds ratio = 1.72; 95% confidence interval 1.31-2.25) and staff. One or more infections in the same household during either period was the strongest risk factor for infection in students and more so among staff. CONCLUSION: Deprivation, community, and household factors were more strongly associated with infection than contacts patterns at school; this suggests that the additional school-based mitigation measures in England in 2020/2021 likely helped reduce transmission risk in schools.

Implementation of COVID-19 Preventive Measures and Staff Well-Being in a Sample of English Schools 2020-2021.

BACKGROUND: We examined fidelity and feasibility of implementation of COVID-19 preventive measures in schools, and explored associations between adherence to these measures and staff well-being, to inform policy on sustainable implementation and staff wellbeing. METHODS: Surveys were conducted across 128 schools in England with 107 headteachers and 2698 staff-members with reference to autumn term 2020, examining school-level implementation of preventive measures, adherence, and teacher burnout (response rates for headteacher and staff surveys were 84% and 59%, respectively). RESULTS: The median number of measures implemented in primary and secondary schools was 33 (range 23-41), and 32 (range 22-40), respectively; most measures presented challenges. No differences were found regarding number of measures implemented by school-level socio-economic disadvantage. High adherence was reported for staff wearing face-coverings, staff regularly washing their hands, (secondary only) desks facing forwards, and (primary only) increased cleaning of surfaces and student hand-washing. Adherence to most measures was reported as higher in primary than secondary schools. Over half of school leaders and 42% (517/1234) of other teaching staff suffered from high emotional exhaustion. Higher teacher-reported school-wide adherence with measures was consistently associated with lower burnout for leaders and other teaching staff. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate a tremendous effort in implementing preventive measures and an urgent need to support investments in improving teacher wellbeing.

Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection among staff and students in a cohort of English primary and secondary schools during 2020-2021.

Background: There remains uncertainty about the epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 among school students and staff and the extent to which non-pharmaceutical-interventions reduce the risk of school settings. Methods: We conducted an open cohort study in a sample of 59 primary and 97 secondary schools in 15 English local authority areas that were implementing government guidance to schools open during the pandemic. We estimated SARS-CoV-2 infection prevalence among those attending school, antibody prevalence, and antibody negative to positive conversion rates in staff and students over the school year (November 2020-July 2021). Findings: 22,585 staff and students participated. SARS-CoV-2 infection prevalence among those attending school was highest during the first two rounds of testing in the autumn term, ranging from 0.7% (95% CI 0.2, 1.2) among primary staff in November 2020 to 1.6% (95% CI 0.9, 2.3) among secondary staff in December 2020. Antibody conversion rates were highest in the autumn term. Infection patterns were similar between staff and students, and between primary and secondary schools. The prevalence of nucleoprotein antibodies increased over the year and was lower among students than staff. SARS-CoV-2 infection prevalence in the North-West region was lower among secondary students attending school on normal school days than the regional estimate for secondary school-age children. Interpretation: SARS-CoV-2 infection prevalence in staff and students attending school varied with local community infection rates. Non-pharmaceutical interventions intended to prevent infected individuals attending school may have partially reduced the prevalence of infection among those on the school site. Funding: UK Department of Health and Social Care.

The COVID-19 Schools Infection Survey in England: Protocol and Participation Profile for a Prospective Observational Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: One of the most debated questions in the COVID-19 pandemic has been the role of schools in SARS-CoV-2 transmission. The COVID-19 Schools Infection Survey (SIS) aims to provide much-needed evidence addressing this issue. OBJECTIVE: We present the study protocol and participation profile for the SIS study, aimed at assessing the role of schools in SARS-CoV-2 infection and transmission within school settings, and investigating how transmission within and from schools could be mitigated through the implementation of school COVID-19 control measures. METHODS: SIS was a multisite, prospective, observational cohort study conducted in a stratified random sample of primary and secondary schools in selected local authorities in England. A total of 6 biobehavioral surveys were planned among participating students and staff during the 2020-2021 academic year, between November 2020 and July 2021. Key measurements were SARS-CoV-2 virus prevalence, assessed by nasal swab polymerase chain reaction; anti-SARS-CoV-2 (nucleocapsid protein) antibody prevalence and conversion, assessed in finger-prick blood for staff and oral fluid for students; student and staff school attendance rates; feasibility and acceptability of school-level implementation of SARS-CoV-2 control measures; and investigation of selected school outbreaks. The study was approved by the United Kingdom Health Security Agency Research Support and Governance Office (NR0237) and London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Ethics Review Committee (reference 22657). RESULTS: Data collection and laboratory analyses were completed by September 2021. A total of 22,585 individuals-1891 staff and 4654 students from 59 primary schools and 5852 staff and 10,188 students from 97 secondary schools-participated in at least one survey. Across all survey rounds, staff and student participation rates were 45.2% and 16.4%, respectively, in primary schools and 30% and 15.2%, respectively, in secondary schools. Although primary student participation increased over time, and secondary student participation remained reasonably consistent, staff participation declined across rounds, especially for secondary school staff (3165/7583, 41.7% in round 1 and 2290/10,374, 22.1% in round 6). Although staff participation overall was generally reflective of the eligible staff population, student participation was higher in schools with low absenteeism, a lower proportion of students eligible for free school meals, and from schools in the least deprived locations (in primary schools, 446/4654, 9.6% of participating students were from schools in the least deprived quintile compared with 1262/22,225, 5.7% of eligible students). CONCLUSIONS: We outline the study design, methods, and participation, and reflect on the strengths of the SIS study as well as the practical challenges encountered and the strategies implemented to address these challenges. The SIS study, by measuring current and incident infection over time, alongside the implementation of control measures in schools across a range of settings in England, aims to inform national guidance and public health policy for educational settings. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR1-10.2196/34075.

Measuring social norms related to handwashing: development and psychometric testing of measurement scales in a low-income urban setting in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.

OBJECTIVES: To design and test the psychometric properties of four context-specific norm-related scales around handwashing with soap after toilet use: (1) perceived handwashing descriptive norms (HWDN); (2) perceived handwashing injunctive norms (HWIN); (3) perceived handwashing behaviour publicness (HWP); and (4) perceived handwashing outcome expectations (HWOE). DESIGN: Scale items were developed based on previous work and pilot tested in an iterative process. Content experts and members of the study team assessed the face validity of the items. The psychometric properties of the scales were assessed in a cross-sectional study. SETTING: The study was conducted in communal housing compounds in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. PARTICIPANTS: A convenience sample of 201 adult residents (≥16 years old) from 60 housing compounds completed the final questionnaire. OUTCOME MEASURE: Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the goodness of fit of the global model. We assessed the internal consistency of each scale using Cronbach's alpha (α) and the Spearman-Brown coefficient (ρ). RESULTS: The results of the psychometric tests supported the construct validity of three of the four scales, with no factor identified for the HWOE (α=0.15). The HWDN and HWP scales were internally consistent with correlations of ρ=0.74 and ρ=0.63, respectively. The HWIN scale appeared reliable (α=0.83). CONCLUSION: We were able to design three reliable context-specific handwashing norm-related scales, specific to economically disadvantaged community settings in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, but failed to construct a reliable scale to measure outcome expectations around handwashing. The social desirability of handwashing and the narrow content area of social norms constructs relating to handwashing present significant challenges when designing items to measure such constructs. Future studies attempting to measure handwashing norm-related constructs will need to take this into account when developing such scales, and take care to adapt their scales to their study context.

Secondary attack rates in primary and secondary school bubbles following a confirmed case: Active, prospective national surveillance, November to December 2020, England.

BACKGROUND: Following the full re-opening of schools in England and emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant, we investigated the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection in students and staff who were contacts of a confirmed case in a school bubble (school groupings with limited interactions), along with their household members. METHODS: Primary and secondary school bubbles were recruited into sKIDsBUBBLE after being sent home to self-isolate following a confirmed case of COVID-19 in the bubble. Bubble participants and their household members were sent home-testing kits comprising nasal swabs for RT-PCR testing and whole genome sequencing, and oral fluid swabs for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. RESULTS: During November-December 2020, 14 bubbles were recruited from 7 schools, including 269 bubble contacts (248 students, 21 staff) and 823 household contacts (524 adults, 299 children). The secondary attack rate was 10.0% (6/60) in primary and 3.9% (4/102) in secondary school students, compared to 6.3% (1/16) and 0% (0/1) among staff, respectively. The incidence rate for household contacts of primary school students was 6.6% (12/183) and 3.7% (1/27) for household contacts of primary school staff. In secondary schools, this was 3.5% (11/317) and 0% (0/1), respectively. Household contacts were more likely to test positive if their bubble contact tested positive although there were new infections among household contacts of uninfected bubble contacts. INTERPRETATION: Compared to other institutional settings, the overall risk of secondary infection in school bubbles and their household contacts was low. Our findings are important for developing evidence-based infection prevention guidelines for educational settings.

Effects of a social norm-based handwashing intervention including handwashing stations, and a handwashing station-only intervention on handwashing with soap in urban Côte d'Ivoire: a cluster randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhoeal diseases are an important cause of mortality in children younger than 5 years in sub-Saharan Africa. We aimed to evaluate the effect of three handwashing interventions on handwashing with soap (HWWS) after toilet use. METHODS: In this cluster randomised trial in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, we randomly assigned communal housing compounds (1:1:1) to receive one of three interventions: a theory of normative social behaviour (TNSB) intervention, including provision of handwashing stations; handwashing stations only; and no intervention. The TNSB intervention was designed to shift the outcome expectation associated with HWWS from health to riddance of faeces-related disgust, and to increase the perceived descriptive norm and perceived handwashing publicness. Participants and fieldworkers were masked to the study objectives. The primary outcome was HWWS after toilet use, assessed at 1 month and 5 months follow-ups. Analysis was by intention to treat. This trial is registered at the Pan African Clinical Trial Registry, PACTR201501000892239. FINDINGS: Between April 10 and May 22, 2014, we identified 92 eligible compounds, of which 75 compounds were included. Follow-up data on HWWS were available for 23 compounds for the TNSB group, 25 compounds for the handwashing station-only group, and 25 compounds for the control group. The study ended in April, 2017. Compared with a frequency of 5% (29 of 604 occasions) in the control group, HWWS after toilet use increased to 9% (49 of 557 occasions; adjusted risk ratio 1·89, 95% CI 1·16-3·08) in the handwashing station-only group, and 24% (143 of 588 occasions; 4·82, 3·06-7·59) in the TNSB group, at the 1-month follow-up. The intervention effect was only sustained in the TNSB group (98 [22%] of 450 compounds; 2·68, 1·65-4·34). INTERPRETATION: A social norm-based handwashing intervention combined with disgust-inducing messages, with provision of handwashing stations, was effective at increasing HWWS after toilet use. The provision of handwashing stations alone had little effect. Future studies should investigate whether the same approach, when delivered via mass media, can have a similar effect to the face-to-face delivery used in this study. FUNDING: None.

Influenza surveillance capacity improvements in Africa during 2011-2017.

BACKGROUND: Influenza surveillance helps time prevention and control interventions especially where complex seasonal patterns exist. We assessed influenza surveillance sustainability in Africa where influenza activity varies and external funds for surveillance have decreased. METHODS: We surveyed African Network for Influenza Surveillance and Epidemiology (ANISE) countries about 2011-2017 surveillance system characteristics. Data were summarized with descriptive statistics and analyzed with univariate and multivariable analyses to quantify sustained or expanded influenza surveillance capacity in Africa. RESULTS: Eighteen (75%) of 24 ANISE members participated in the survey; their cumulative population of 710 751 471 represent 56% of Africa's total population. All 18 countries scored a mean 95% on WHO laboratory quality assurance panels. The number of samples collected from severe acute respiratory infection case-patients remained consistent between 2011 and 2017 (13 823 vs 13 674 respectively) but decreased by 12% for influenza-like illness case-patients (16 210 vs 14 477). Nine (50%) gained capacity to lineage-type influenza B. The number of countries reporting each week to WHO FluNet increased from 15 (83%) in 2011 to 17 (94%) in 2017. CONCLUSIONS: Despite declines in external surveillance funding, ANISE countries gained additional laboratory testing capacity and continued influenza testing and reporting to WHO. These gains represent important achievements toward sustainable surveillance and epidemic/pandemic preparedness.

Small-area level socio-economic deprivation and tuberculosis rates in England: An ecological analysis of tuberculosis notifications between 2008 and 2012.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) rates in England are among the highest in high-income countries. Poverty and historic and current immigration from high TB incidence parts of the world are two major drivers of tuberculosis in England. However, little has been done in recent years to examine socio-economic trends in TB rates in England, and to disentangle the role of deprivation from that of place of birth in the current TB epidemiology. OBJECTIVES: To assess the association between England's 2008-2012 TB notification rates and small area-level deprivation, together and separately in the UK-born and foreign-born populations. METHODS: Ecological analysis of the association between quintiles of England's 2010 Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) and TB rates at the Lower-layer Super Output Area (LSOA; average population ~1500) level, using negative binomial and zero-inflated negative binomial regression models, adjusting for age, sex, urban/rural area classification, and area-level percentage of non-White residents. RESULTS: There was a log-linear gradient between area-deprivation levels and TB rates, with overall TB rates in the most deprived quintile areas three times higher than the least deprived quintile after adjustment for age and sex (IRR = 3.35; 95%CI: 3.16 to 3.55). The association and gradient were stronger in the UK-born than the foreign-born population, with UK-born TB rates in the most deprived quintiles about two-and-a-half times higher than the least deprived quintile (IRR = 2.39; 95%CI: 2.19 to 2.61) after controlling for age, sex, urban/rural classification and percentage of non-White residents; whereas the comparable figure for foreign-born persons was 80% higher (IRR = 1.78; 95%CI: 1.66 to 1.91). CONCLUSIONS: Socio-economic deprivation continues to play a substantial role in sustaining the TB epidemic in England, especially in the UK-born population. This supports the case for further investigations of the underlying social- determinants of TB.

Drug misuse, tobacco smoking, alcohol and other social determinants of tuberculosis in UK-born adults in England: a community-based case-control study.

Addressing social determinants of tuberculosis (TB) is essential to achieve elimination, including in low-incidence settings. We measured the association between socio-economic status and intermediate social determinants of health (SDHs, including drug misuse, tobacco smoking and alcohol), and TB, taking into account their clustering in individuals. We conducted a case-control study in 23-38 years old UK-born White adults with first tuberculosis episode, and randomly selected age and sex frequency-matched community controls. Data was collected on education, household overcrowding, tobacco smoking, alcohol and drugs use, and history of homelessness and prison. Analyses were done using logistic regression models, informed by a formal theoretical causal framework (Directed Acyclic Graph). 681 TB cases and 1183 controls were recruited. Tuberculosis odds were four times higher in subjects with education below GCSE O-levels, compared to higher education (OR = 3.94; 95%CI: 2.74, 5.67), after adjusting for other TB risk factors (age, sex, BCG-vaccination and stays ≥3 months in Africa/Asia). When simultaneously accounting for respective SDHs, higher tuberculosis risk was independently associated with tobacco smoking, drugs use (especially injectable drugs OR = 5.67; 95%CI: 2.68, 11.98), homelessness and area-level deprivation. Population Attributable Fraction estimates suggested that tobacco and class-A drug use were, respectively, responsible for 18% and 15% of TB cases in this group. Our findings suggest that socio-economic deprivation remains a driver of tuberculosis in England, including through drugs misuse, tobacco smoking, and homelessness. These findings further support the integration of health and social services in high-risk young adults to improve TB control efforts.

The prevalence and risk factors for human Brucella species infection in a cross-sectional survey of a rural population in Punjab, India.

BACKGROUND: Brucellosis is an important neglected zoonosis. Effective cattle vaccines are available but are infrequently used in India, where rural households commonly own one or two cattle as sources of protein and income. We assessed the prevalence of infection and risk factors in humans. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional sero-survey in randomly selected individuals in 60 villages in Punjab. Infection prevalence was assessed by positive Rose Bengal testing or immunoglobulin G enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Risk factors were adjusted for potential confounding using multivariable analyses. RESULTS: Of the 1927 subjects who were approached, 93% agreed to participate. Age-standardised prevalence for Brucella infection was 2.24% (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.61 to 3.11). More than 60% of households kept cattle and 10% assisted with calving or abortions. Nearly all individuals consumed boiled cow/buffalo milk from their own or neighbours' cattle and 3.3% consumed goat's milk. There was a 2.18 times increased odds (95% CI 0.96 to 4.95) of infection with calving/abortions and a 4.26 times increased odds (95% CI 1.33 to 13.6) with goat's milk but not bovine milk consumption. CONCLUSIONS: An association with calving/abortions and goat's milk consumption was seen. Brucella vaccination of household livestock would reduce the risk to humans in such settings. Additional measures include biosecurity training around calving/abortions, education to boil all milk and for healthcare workers to test for brucellosis.

Brucellosis in dairy herds: A public health concern in the milk supply chains of West and Central Africa.

Ten herd-level cross-sectional studies were conducted in peri-urban dairy production areas of seven West and Central African countries (Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo). The objectives were to estimate herd level Brucella spp. seroprevalence and identify risk factors for seropositivity. In each of the ten study areas, herds (between 52 and 142 per area, total = 965) were selected probabilistically and a structured questionnaire was administered to gather information on their structure and management. A bulk milk sample from each herd was tested by indirect ELISA for Brucella spp. For each area, herd seroprevalence estimates were obtained after adjusting for the assumed performance of the diagnostic test. Herd level risk factors for Brucella spp. seropositivity were identified by means of stratified logistic regression, with each peri-urban zone as a stratum. Area-specific models were also explored. Estimated herd seroprevalences were: Lomé (Togo) 62.0% (95% CI:55.0-69.0), Bamako (Mali) 32.5% (95% CI:28.0-37.0), Bujumbura (Burundi) 14.7% (95%CI:9.4-20.8), Bamenda (Cameroon) 12.6% (95% CI:7.6-21.9), Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) 3.0% (95% CI:1.0-9.1), Ngaoundere (Cameroon) 2.3% (95% CI:1.0-7.0), Thies (Senegal) 1.3% (95% CI:0.1, 5.3), Niamey (Niger) 1.2% (95% CI:0.08-5.3), Dakar (Senegal) 0.2% (95% CI:0.01-1.7) and Niakhar (Senegal) <0.04%. Logistic regression modelling revealed transhumant herds to be at lower risk of infection (adjusted OR: 0.25, 95% CI: 0.13 - 0.5) and in one of the areas (Bamenda), regular purchase of new animals was found to be strongly associated with Brucella spp. seropositivity (adjusted OR = 5.3, 95% CI: 1.4-25.9). Our findings confirm that Brucella spp. circulates among dairy cattle supplying milk to urban consumers in West and Central Africa, posing a serious public health concern. Control programs are urgently needed in areas such as Lomé or Bamako, where more than 30% of the herds show evidence of infection.

BCG vaccination for bovine tuberculosis; conclusions from the Jerusalem One Health workshop.

The global burden of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) remains poorly characterized, with spill-over impacts on multiple species. The "One Health" concept is especially relevant given the bidirectional risk of cattle infecting humans with Mycobacterium bovis and humans infecting cattle with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. "Test and cull" is the traditional bTB control method, but the strategy may not be economically feasible or culturally acceptable where cattle are highly prized or their killing is a religious taboo; it is also less effective when there are wildlife reservoirs of infection. Vaccination with M. bovis bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) provides protection against bTB, but its use in animals has been limited. The Jerusalem One Health workshop considered key bTB knowledge gaps and innovative solutions. Knowledge gaps identified included (a) the poorly quantified prevalence of M. bovis infection and disease in cattle, domestic camelids and human populations in developing countries, (b) the absence of alternatives to a "test and cull" strategy in settings where the killing of infected animals is culturally or economically unacceptable, or where affected species are protected and (c) an understanding of the induction of mucosal immunity against bTB. We summarize discussions on the use of BCG vaccination in domestic animals and wildlife and list potential projects to address the knowledge gaps identified.

The duration of protection of school-aged BCG vaccination in England: a population-based case-control study.

Background: Evidence of protection from childhood Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) against tuberculosis (TB) in adulthood, when most transmission occurs, is important for TB control and resource allocation. Methods: We conducted a population-based case-control study of protection by BCG given to children aged 12-13 years against tuberculosis occurring 10-29 years later. We recruited UK-born White subjects with tuberculosis and randomly sampled White community controls. Hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using case-cohort Cox regression, adjusting for potential confounding factors, including socio-economic status, smoking, drug use, prison and homelessness. Vaccine effectiveness (VE = 1 - hazard ratio) was assessed at successive intervals more than 10 years following vaccination. Results: We obtained 677 cases and 1170 controls after a 65% response rate in both groups. Confounding by deprivation, education and lifestyle factors was slight 10-20 years after vaccination, and more evident after 20 years. VE 10-15 years after vaccination was 51% (95% CI 21, 69%) and 57% (CI 33, 72%) at 15-20 years. Subsequently, BCG protection appeared to wane; 20-25 years VE = 25% (CI -14%, 51%) and 25-29 years VE = 1% (CI -84%, 47%). Based on multiple imputation of missing data (in 17% subjects), VE estimated in the same intervals after vaccination were similar [56% (CI 33, 72%), 57% (CI 36, 71%), 25% (-10, 48%), 21% (-39, 55%)]. Conclusions: School-aged BCG vaccination offered moderate protection against tuberculosis for at least 20 years, which is longer than previously thought. This has implications for assessing the cost-effectiveness of BCG vaccination and when evaluating new TB vaccines.