Procedural Justice in Their Eyes: A Qualitative Interview Study Among Detainees.

The literature on procedural justice has been mainly focused on examining whether a fair and respectful treatment affects justice-involved individuals' legitimacy evaluations and their behavior. It is, however, equally important to examine (a) the role that perceptions of procedural justice play for individuals in their encounters with criminal justice authorities and (b) what makes individuals feel treated procedurally (un-)just. In this qualitative study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 35 detainees in a Dutch prison, asking questions about their encounters with police officers, prison staff, judges, and probation officers. The findings showed that the majority of detainees raised issues of procedural justice, indicating that procedural justice plays an important role for them. In addition, five elements primarily shaped detainees' perceptions of procedural justice: (1) trustworthy motives, (2) interpersonal treatment, (3) neutrality, (4) participation, and (5) agency and process information. These elements of procedural justice were mentioned after encounters with most authorities.

Do Prisoners With Reintegration Needs Receive Relevant Professional Assistance?

Ex-prisoners often experience barriers to successful transition regarding employment, finances, housing, healthcare, and valid identification. Based on the Offender Management framework, assistance during imprisonment by prison- and community-based professionals is considered key in preparing prisoners for release regarding these reintegration needs. Therefore, the current study examines the degree to which prisoners with reintegration needs are assisted by relevant professionals. We used self-reported data from 4,309 prisoners of the Dutch Prison Visitation Study, part of the Life in Custody Study. The results showed that prisoners have more contact with prison-based than with community-based professionals, but that the latter relatively often have contact with prisoners with related reintegration needs. Yet, a specific group of prisoners with reintegration needs remains invisible. Prisoners with complex, health, or valid identification needs, and prisoners in the start or pre-release phase require further attention. It is discussed what can be learned from these findings on Dutch Offender Management practices.

Detainees' Perceptions of Procedural Justice: An Examination Throughout the Criminal Justice System.

Procedural justice literature proposes that when individuals perceive their treatment by criminal justice authorities as more procedurally just, they will be more likely to view those authorities as legitimate and, in turn, show more compliant behavior. Knowledge on potential determinants of procedural justice is, therefore, crucial. Research suggests that prior perceptions of procedural justice may influence later judgements of procedural justice. The current study used data from the Prison Project, including information on detainees' perceptions of their treatment by the police, the judge, the prison staff, the probation officer, and the lawyer. The findings show that detainees perceive the treatment by the lawyer as most procedurally just, while they evaluate the treatment by the police as least procedurally just. Further, how detainees experience the procedurally just treatment by the police is associated with how they feel treated by other authorities at a later stage in the criminal justice system.

Longitudinal trajectories of mental health problems and their association with reoffending in a Dutch pre-trial prison cohort.

The burden of mental health problems in detained persons is high. At the same time, mental health problems are discussed as possible predictors of criminal recidivism. During detention, mental health tends to improve. The aims of the study were twofold: First, to identify group-based trajectories of mental health problems over the course of detention; second, to test the association between trajectories and criminal recidivism. A prospective cohort of 1,904 adult males detained in Dutch pre-trial detention facilities was assessed at three time points after imprisonment (week 3, month 3, and month 9). Mental health problems were measured using the Brief Symptom Inventory. Recidivism was defined as reconviction and re-incarceration up to 18 months post-release. We used group-based trajectory modeling and logistic regressions for the analyses. On average, self-reported mental health improved during incarceration. Two distinct groups of mental health trajectories were identified: The majority (81%) reported relatively low levels of mental health problems, remaining stable over time. A small group (19%) reported high distress after prison entry with improvements over time. Older age, pre-existing functional impairment due to alcohol or drug use, diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, debts, use of psychiatric care during detention, and a more severe experience of detention were associated with membership in the second group. Group membership did not predict reoffending. The study confirms prior findings illustrating a generally positive change in mental health symptoms during detention. The course of mental health was associated with pre-existing socio-demographic and psychological characteristics that seem worthy to be considered in correctional treatment plans. Changes in mental health did not result in better legal outcomes. An interesting avenue for future research would be to examine changes in specific mental health symptoms or disorders in relation to recidivism risk.

Mental and physical health problems before and after detention: A matched cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with poor health are largely overrepresented in prison populations. However, it remains unclear whether their poor health status already exists prior to their detention or reflects an effect of detention. We examined the health of detainees in the year before and after their detention and compared this with the health of matched non-detainees. METHODS: In this matched cohort study, we linked national data on all persons detained in the Netherlands in 2014/2015 to electronic health records (EHR's) of a representative sample of general practitioners in the Netherlands. Participants include 952 detained persons and 4760 matched non-detained persons (matched on age, sex and general practice). Prevalence rates of health problems in the year before and after detention and odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Rates for a variety of physical and mental health problems are presented. FINDINGS: Detainees and matched controls differed statistically significant in their pre-detention health status. Compared with controls, male detainees were more likely to report psychological (odds ratio [OR] 3·64 [95% CI 3·11-4·26]), social (1·96 [1·46-2·64]), neurological (1·34 [1·02-1·76]), digestive (1·23 [1·02-1·49]), genital system-related (1·36 [1·07-1·72]), and unspecified health problems (1·32 [1·10-1·59]) in the year before their detention. For example, 43·7% of detainees and 17·6% of controls reported psychological problems in this pre-detention year. To some extent these pre-detention health differences were related to socioeconomic differences. Nevertheless, after taking these characteristics into account, a number of pre-detention health differences between detainees and controls remained statistically significant. No statistically significant changes in prevalence rates from pre- to post-detention and no differences in the levels of change across detainees and controls were observed. For female detainees a similar pattern was found. INTERPRETATION: People who experience detention have high and complex health needs both pre- and post-detention. While this study did not show a health deteriorating effect of detention, it also did not show a health improving effect. This latter finding may indicate a missed opportunity for health care services to address detainees' health, especially since persons entering detention have elevated health problems. Knowledge on detainees' specific health problems may help health care providers in prisons and in the community to adequately address the health care needs of this vulnerable group. FUNDING: None.

Short-Term Effects of Imprisonment Length on Recidivism in the Netherlands.

This article assesses the relationship between imprisonment length and recidivism. The data come from a unique longitudinal and nationwide study of Dutch prisoners, serving an average of 4.1 months of confinement (N = 1,467). A propensity score methodology is used to examine the dose-response relationship for three types of registered recidivism (i.e., reoffending, reconviction, and reincarceration) within a 6-month follow-up period. Findings indicate that length of imprisonment exerts an overall null effect on future rates of recidivism and that this conclusion holds across the various types of recidivism. These findings contribute to continuing scholarly debates over the social and economic costs of imprisonment.

Sex Offenders in Prison: Are They Socially Isolated?

Empirical literature has revealed that social isolation can affect the rehabilitation of sex offenders after serving their sentence. This process of social isolation can already start during incarceration due to strained relationships with fellow prisoners and correctional staff. The current study examined to what extent sex offenders felt socially isolated during incarceration, using survey and registered conviction data on a large sample of male adult prisoners from the Prison Project. It was found that support from and relationships with correctional officers and fellow prisoners were perceived less positive by sex offenders than nonsex offenders. No evidence was found for higher levels of loneliness in sex offenders compared with prisoners convicted for a nonsexual offense. In sum, although the effects were small, sex offenders reported more social isolation during imprisonment compared with nonsex offenders.

Managing Risk or Supporting Desistance? A Longitudinal Study on the Nature and Perceptions of Parole Supervision in the Netherlands.

PURPOSE: Little is known about how ex-prisoners' parole supervision experiences support or hinder the process of desistance. The aim of this article is to analyse the nature of parole supervision of Dutch (ex-)long-term prisoners in terms of official conditions, as well as the way in which parole officers (POs) and ex-prisoners navigate these conditions. The focus is particularly on the experienced supervision style and how this interacts with different dimensions of efforts at desistance. METHODS: Twenty-three Dutch parolees were interviewed in depth at three waves starting in prison up to one year after their release from prison. A thematic analysis was undertaken to analyse the 69 interviews. In addition, the parole files of these ex-prisoners were examined containing information about conditions, violations and sanctions. RESULTS: Parole files revealed the practice of highly engaged parole officers, who worked with parolees to strengthen factors known to foster desistance and tried to accommodate the difficulties of navigating 'life outside' after a relatively long prison sentence. However, the interviews showed that most parolees found their parole experience predominantly surveillance-oriented and not very helpful for desistance. Parole was experienced as most beneficial when parole officers were viewed as social workers or mentors and used their discretionary power to adjust conditions creating 'space' for trial-and-error. CONCLUSIONS: This longitudinal study suggests that a policy culture and discourse of risk management do not necessarily preclude desistance support in parole supervision in the Netherlands, due to discretionary power of parole officers.

Not Just Any Job Will Do: A Study on Employment Characteristics and Recidivism Risks After Release.

Ex-prisoners' recidivism risks are high. Several theories state that employment can reduce these risks but emphasize that the protective role of employment is conditional on job qualities (work intensity, job duration, etc.). Longitudinal research on the role of employment in ex-prisoners' recidivism patterns is scarce, and most existing work used a simplistic employment measure (i.e., employed vs. unemployed), leaving the topic of job quality underexplored. This study examines the association between employment characteristics and recidivism among Dutch ex-prisoners. Using longitudinal data of the Prison Project ( n = 714), we found that not just any job, but particularly stable employment and jobs with a higher occupational level could help reduce crime rates among these high-risk offenders. Many ex-prisoners face a human capital deficit that complicates the guidance to high-quality jobs. It might, however, be possible to help place ex-prisoners in stable employment.

Treatment Readiness as a Determinant of Treatment Participation in a Prison-Based Rehabilitation Program: An Exploratory Study.

The current study had three aims. First, it measured treatment readiness among offenders who entered the Prevention of Recidivism program. This is a prison-based rehabilitation program in the Netherlands that aims to lower re-offending rates among offenders with a prison sentence of at least for months and that is carried out during the final months of incarceration. Second, the study evaluated whether treatment readiness was associated with treatment participation. Third, the study examined whether treatment readiness measured with a validated instrument predicted treatment participation above and beyond a clinical assessment of treatment readiness, currently used as a criterion to include offenders in rehabilitation programs. To address these aims, data were used from the fourth wave of a research project studying the effects of imprisonment on the life of detainees in the Netherlands. Results indicated that treatment readiness as measured with a validated instrument was a significant predictor of treatment participation. Also, the current study showed that treatment readiness measured with a validated instrument improved the prediction of treatment participation above and beyond a clinical assessment of treatment readiness. Outcomes were discussed in light of study limitations and implications.

The Relationship Between a Person's Criminal History, Immediate Situational Factors, and Lethal Versus Non-Lethal Events.

When investigating serious violence, studies tend to look primarily at offenders and their background. This study investigates the influence of offenders' and victims' criminal history and immediate situational factors on the likelihood that violent events will end lethally. For this purpose, we compare lethal with non-lethal events, and combine Dutch criminal records with data from court files of those involved in lethal (i.e., homicide, n = 126) versus non-lethal events (i.e., attempted homicide, n = 141). Results reveal that both criminal history and immediate situational factors clearly matter for the outcome of violent events; however, immediate situational factors have the strongest effect on violent outcomes.

Doing your own time: Peer integration, aggression and mental health in Dutch male detainment facilities.

BACKGROUND: Prior research demonstrates a strong positive association between social integration (e.g., strong social ties) and individual health. However, researchers also emphasize that this correlation may vary by context and potentially reverse direction under certain conditions. In this study, we draw on competing criminological theories of peer relations to examine if social integration, measured by trust in peers, is positively or negatively associated with violence and mental health of men detained in pre-trial confinement facilities. METHODS: We test our hypotheses with peer network and health data from 467 Dutch male pre-trial detainees. RESULTS: Results suggest that peer trust has no direct association with reported rates of peer aggression while detained and low peer trust is generally protective for mental health. CONCLUSIONS: Our study adds to a small body of literature finding that social integration within certain correctional settings may not operate in the same way that it does in the general population and may actually contribute to adverse mental health outcomes.

Procedural justice in prison: the importance of staff characteristics.

A humane and fair treatment of prisoners is of intrinsic value in itself, and is generally acclaimed to reduce prisoners' psychological distress and misconduct in prison, and their criminal behavior after release from prison. To create a more just prison climate, scholars have emphasized the importance of correctional staff. However, there is a lack of empirical research on the relationship between correctional officers' characteristics and prisoners' perceptions of a just treatment in prison. Our study fills this gap in knowledge. Data were used from (a) the Prison Project, a large-scale study in which prisoners held in all Dutch remand centers were surveyed (n = 1,610) and (b) the Dutch Correctional Staff Survey 2011 (n = 690). Multilevel analyses showed that prisoners perceived their treatment in prison as more procedurally just in units where there are more female officers, where officers held more positive attitudes toward rehabilitation, and where there is a higher officer-to-inmate ratio.

Procedural justice and prisoners' mental health problems: a longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Given the high prevalence of mental health problems among prisoners, knowledge on its determinants is important. Prior cross-sectional studies suggest that procedurally just treatment within prison is a significant predictor; however, longitudinal research is lacking. AIM: The aims of this study were to examine (1) the longitudinal relationship between prisoners' perceptions of procedural justice--including fairness, respect, humanity and relationships with officers--and their mental health and (2) the moderating role of coping style in this relationship. METHODS: Data were obtained from the Prison Project, a longitudinal study of adult male prisoners in the Netherlands, interviewed both 3 weeks and 3 months after their reception into pre-trial detention (N = 824). A cross-lagged structural equation model was employed to investigate associations. RESULTS: Prisoners who reported experiencing a higher level of procedural justice 3 weeks after their arrival in custody reported fewer mental health problems after 3 months. No evidence was found that coping style moderated this relationship. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest a causal relationship between procedural justice and psychological well-being. Fair and respectful treatment of prisoners is a predictor not only of prison order and prisoners' compliance but also of prisoners' psychological well-being.

Personal networks of prisoners prior to incarceration: A comparison with the general Dutch population.

This study examines inmates' core discussion network prior to their incarceration. The core discussion network consists of the immediate social circle of relatively strong ties. The aims of the study are twofold: (1) to describe inmates' core discussion network prior to their incarceration in terms of network structure, relationship quality and embedded socioeconomic resources; (2) to compare inmates' core discussion network with the core discussion network of the general Dutch population. Data are analyzed from the Prison Project (n=1909) and the Survey of the Social Networks of the Dutch (n=394). Compared with the general Dutch population, prior to incarceration, prisoners generally have a core discussion network that is similar to or even better with respect to network structure and relationship quality. However, prisoners' core discussion network members seem to lack socioeconomic resources.

Homicide-suicide and other violent deaths: an international comparison.

Homicides followed by the suicide of the perpetrator constitute a serious form of interpersonal violence. Until now no study has directly compared homicide-suicides to other violent deaths from multiple countries, allowing for a better understanding of the nature of these violent acts. Using country-specific data, this study describes and compares the incidence and patterns of homicide-suicide as well as the relationship between homicide-suicide, homicide, suicide and domestic homicide in the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United States. The results indicate that cross-nationally, homicide-suicides are more likely than other types of lethal violence to involve a female victim, multiple victims, take place in a residential setting and to be committed by a firearm. Although homicide-suicides display many similarities across the different countries, differences exist regarding age and the use of firearms in the offence. This study indicates that homicides followed by suicides differ from both homicides and suicides in similar ways internationally. Cross-national differences in the availability of firearms may explain the international variation of homicide-suicide rates and patterns.

Homicide followed by suicide: a comparison with homicide and suicide.

Homicide-suicides are a rare yet very serious form of lethal violence which mainly occurs in partnerships and families. The extent to which homicide-suicide can be understood as being primarily a homicide or a suicide event, or rather a category of its own is examined. In total, 103 homicide-suicides were compared to 3,203 homicides and 17,751 suicides. These are all events that took place in the Netherlands in the period 1992 to 2006. Logistic regression analyses show that homicide-suicides significantly differ from both homicides and suicides with regard to sociodemographic and event characteristics. The findings suggest that homicide-suicide might be considered as a distinct phenomenon from both homicide and suicide.

Association of criminal convictions between family members: effects of siblings, fathers and mothers.

BACKGROUND: Crime runs in families. Previous research has shown the existence of intergenerational transmission of criminal behaviour. AIM: The aim of the present study was to investigate the extent to which variation in criminal convictions may be explained by the criminality of siblings and by the intergenerational transmission of criminal behaviour. METHOD: Data from the Dutch Criminal Career and Life-course Study (CCLS) were used to analyse cross-tabulations and to conduct multi-level logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: The results indicate that criminal convictions of other family members are indeed correlated with individual conviction risk. The criminal history of siblings is most strongly correlated with the convictions of focal respondents. Results furthermore show that parental convictions only account modestly for the association of criminal convictions between siblings. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that a direct influence between siblings is plausible, providing support for learning or imitation theories.