The influence of hydrothermal fatigue on the clinically relevant functional properties of conventional glass-ionomer cements.

During their everyday service, the restorative dental materials are subjected to temperature changes which can be viewed as intensive in the context of the highest allowed temperatures for these materials. In this work, the effect of hydrothermal fatigue on the in vitro tribological performance, compression strength, microhardness, and surface roughness of glass-ionomer cements was studied. Samples of 3 commercially available cements were divided into the reference (aged 14 days) and thermocycled (20,000 cycles; 5-55 °C) groups. The results obtained show that functional properties of the specimens subjected to thermal fatigue significantly differ from the literature data on the cements aged at constant temperatures. The effect of hydrothermal fatigue on the functional properties of cements is discussed in the context of processes induced by exposure to variable temperatures.

Effect of Hydrothermal Factors on the Microhardness of Bulk-Fill and Nanohybrid Composites.

This study evaluates the effect of aging in artificial saliva and thermal shocks on the microhardness of the bulk-fill composite compared to the nanohybrid composite. Two commercial composites, Filtek Z550 (3M ESPE) (Z550) and Filtek Bulk-Fill (3M ESPE) (B-F), were tested. The samples were exposed to artificial saliva (AS) for one month (control group). Then, 50% of the samples from each composite were subjected to thermal cycling (temperature range: 5-55 °C, cycle time: 30 s, number of cycles: 10,000) and another 50% were put back into the laboratory incubator for another 25 months of aging in artificial saliva. The samples' microhardness was measured using the Knoop method after each stage of conditioning (after 1 month, after 10,000 thermocycles, after another 25 months of aging). The two composites in the control group differed considerably in hardness (HK = 89 for Z550, HK = 61 for B-F). After thermocycling, the microhardness decrease was for Z550 approximately 22-24% and for B-F approximately 12-15%. Hardness after 26 months of aging decreased for Z550 (approximately 3-5%) and B-F (15-17%). B-F had a significantly lower initial hardness than Z550, but it showed an approximately 10% lower relative reduction in hardness.

Effect of Artificial Aging on Mechanical and Tribological Properties of CAD/CAM Composite Materials Used in Dentistry.

With easy-to-process 3D printing materials and fast production, the quality of dental services can be improved. In the conventional procedure, the dentist makes temporary crowns directly in the patient's mouth, e.g., from the most commonly used bis-acrylic composites. Temporary crowns made directly in the office without the use of CAD/CAM are often of inferior quality, which directly results in impaired hygiene, poorer masticatory mechanics, greater deposition of plaque, calculus and sediment, and may adversely affect periodontal and gum health. The mechanical strength, resistance to aging and abrasion of 3D printing materials are higher than those of the soft materials used in conventional methods. This translates into durability. The patient leaves the surgery with a restoration of higher utility quality compared to the conventional method. The objective of the paper was to determine the influence of aging in artificial saliva of AM (additive manufacturing) orthodontic composites on their functional properties. For the purpose of the study, fillings well-known worldwide were selected. These were traditional UV-curable resins (M I, M II, M III, M V) and a hybrid material based on a UV-curable resin (M VI). Samples were stored in artificial saliva at 37 ± 1 °C in a thermal chamber for 6 months. Indentation hardness, frictional tests and sliding wear measurements were conducted. A comparison between various materials was made. Descriptive statistics, degradation coefficients, H2E, Archard wear and specific wear rate were calculated. The Weibull statistical test for indentation hardness was performed and Hertzian contact stresses for the frictional association were calculated for unaged (M I, M II, M III, M V, M VI) and aged (M I AS, M II AS, M III AS, M V AS, M VI AS) samples. M I exhibited the lowest average hardness among the unaged materials, while M III AS had the lowest average hardness among the aged materials. Comparably low hardness was demonstrated by the M I AS material. The coefficient of friction values for the aged samples were found to be higher. The lowest wear value was demonstrated by the M I material. The wear resistance of most of the tested materials deteriorated after aging. The M VI AS material had the highest increase in wear. According to the results provided, not only the chemical composition and structure, but also aging have a great impact on the indentation hardness and wear resistance of the tested orthodontic materials.

Bending Behaviour of Polymeric Materials Used on Biomechanics Orthodontic Appliances.

This paper discusses the issues of strength and creep of polymeric materials used in orthodontic appliances. Orthodontic biomechanics is focused on the movement of individual teeth or dental groups as a result of the force applied by orthodontic appliances. Stresses in the construction of functional and biomechanical appliances is generated when using the apparatus in the oral cavity. The orthodontic appliance must maintain its shape and not be damaged during treatment so strength and creep resistance are fundamental properties. It was assumed that the clinical success of orthodontic appliances can be determined by these performance properties. The aim of the work was the experimental assessment of comparative bending strength and creep resistance of selected popular polymer materials used in the production of biomechanical orthodontic appliances. Four commercial materials manufactured by the world class producers were tested: NextDent Ortho Rigid (Vertex-Dental B.V., Soesterberg, The Netherlands) marked as "1A"; Erkocryl (ERKODENT Erich Kopp GmbH, Pfalzgrafenweiler, Germany)-"2A"; Vertex Orthoplast (Vertex Dental B.V.), blue, marked as "3A" and material with the same name as "3A" but orange, marked in the article as "4A". All the tests were carried out after aging in artificial saliva for 48 h at a temperature of 37 °C. Flexular strength and flexular modulus were made using the three point bending method according to the ISO 178 technical standard. Creep tests were carried out according to the method contained in ISO 899-2. The creep test was carried out in an artificial saliva bath at 37 °C. The creep tests showed significant differences in the strength, modulus and deformability of the tested materials. The strength reliability of the tested materials also varied. The research shows that the 2A material can be used for orthodontic applications in which long-term stresses should be lower than 20 MPa.

Hardness and Wear Resistance of Dental Biomedical Nanomaterials in a Humid Environment with Non-Stationary Temperatures.

This study discusses a quantitative fatigue evaluation of polymer-ceramic composites for dental restorations, i.e., commercial material (Filtek Z550) and experimental materials Ex-nano (G), Ex-flow (G). Their evaluation is based on the following descriptors: microhardness, scratch resistance, and sliding wear. In order to reflect factors of environmental degradation conditions, thermal fatigue was simulated with a special computer-controlled device performing algorithms of thermocycling. Specimens intended for the surface strength and wear tests underwent 104 hydrothermal fatigue cycles. Thermocycling was preceded by aging, which meant immersing the specimens in artificial saliva at 37 °C for 30 days. Microhardness tests were performed with the Vickers hardness test method. The scratch test was done with a Rockwell diamond cone indenter. Sliding ball-on-disc friction tests were performed against an alumina ball in the presence of artificial saliva. A direct positive correlation was found between thermocycling fatigue and microhardness. The dominant mechanism of the wear of the experimental composites after thermocycling is the removal of fragments of the materials in the form of flakes from the friction surface (spalling). Hydrothermal fatigue is synergistic with mechanical fatigue.

Condition of mineralized tooth tissue in a population of 15-year-old adolescents living in a region of Ukraine with slightly exceeded fluorine concentration in the water.

INTRODUCTION: Fluorine is a common element in nature; however, the difference between a beneficial dose and a toxic dose for the organisms is small. The main source of fluoride for humans is water in addition to food. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to estimate the degree of severity of pathological changes, namely, caries or fluorosis, in the mineralized tooth tissue of 15-year-old adolescents with respect to their hygienic and nutritional habits, and the content of fluorine in drinking water, soil and plant products. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 100 adolescents aged 15 from schools in Sosnilka, L'viv region, were examined. The condition of mineralized tooth tissue was evaluated by the caries severity, expressed by the mean number D3MFT, caries frequency and value of the SIC index. Fluorine in plant material and soil were determined according to the PN-G-04543:1982 standard, and water according to the PN-EN ISO 10304 - 1: 2009+ AC: 2012 standard. RESULTS: Severity of caries disease expressed by the D3MFT number in the examined group of 15-year-olds was 3.39; in the group of girls - 3.08, and in the group of boys - 3.76. In the examined group, the average number of teeth with fluorosis was 7.59. Value of the SIC index among the examined population of students (n-31) was 6.26: 5.89 (n-18) for girls and 7.31 (n-13) for boys. Fluorine concentration in the water was 0.78 - 1.25(mg·dm-3). In the soil, it also did not vary across the sampled areas and amounted, on average, to 176 mg·dm-3. The biggest fluorine content noted in the dry mass of beetroots was 3.50 (mg F· kg), and the lowest - 3.34 (mg F· kg). CONCLUSIONS: Close to optimal fluorine content lowers caries severity and frequency of fluorosis. Optimal fluorine content in drinking water and food does not require additional diet supplementation.

Hydro-Thermal Fatigue of Polymer Matrix Composite Biomaterials.

This study discusses a quantitative fatigue evaluation of polymer-ceramic composites for dental restorations, i.e., commercial (Filtek Z550) and experimental Ex-nano (G), Ex-flow (G). Their evaluation is based on the following descriptors: mechanical strength, elastic modulus and strain work to fracture. Supposed to reflect factors of environmental degradation conditions, thermal fatigue was simulated with a special computer-controlled device performing algorithms of thermocycling. The specimens intended for the strength test underwent 104 hydro-thermal fatigue cycles. This procedure of thermocycling was preceded by aging, which meant immersing the specimens in artificial saliva at 37 °C for 30 days. The strength tests after aging only and after aging and thermocycles were performed in line with the three-point flexural strength (TFS) test, specified in ISO 4049, and the biaxial flexural strength (BFS) test, specifically piston-on-three-ball in accordance with ISO 6872. Based on the results, it can be stated that composites with higher volume content of inorganic particles after aging only show higher strength than materials with lower filler particle content. For example, the average flexural bending strength of the Ex-flow (G) composite was about 45% lower than the value obtained for the Ex-nano (G) material. The residual strength after thermocycles is significantly lower for the experimental composites, whereas a smaller decrease in strength is recorded for the commercial composites. Decreases in strength were about 4% (Filtek Z550), 43% (Ex-nano (G)), and 29% (Ex-flow (G)) for the BFS test; and about 17% (Filtek Z550), 55% (Ex-nano (G)), 60% (Ex-flow (G)) for the TFS test. The elastic modulus of the experimental composites after only aging is higher (about 42%) than that of the commercial composite, but the elastic modulus of the commercial composite increases significantly after thermocycling. A descriptor known as strain work to fracture turns out to be a good descriptor for evaluating the hydro-thermal fatigue of the tested polymer-ceramic composites.

The Effect of Thermocycling on Surface Layer Properties of Light Cured Polymer Matrix Ceramic Composites (PMCCs) Used in Sliding Friction Pair.

This paper discusses the problem of thermocycling effect of light-curing polymer-ceramic composites. Cyclic thermal shocks were simulated in laboratory conditions. As a rule, these loads were supposed to reproduce the actual conditions of biomaterials exploitation. Periodically variable stresses occurring in dental restorations are associated with the wear of cold and hot foods and beverages. They lead to changes in the properties of composites, including the properties of the surface layer. The aim of the work was to assess the impact of cyclic hydrothermal interactions on the properties of the surface layer of composites relevant to the operational quality. Two commercial materials manufactured by the world's leading producer (3M ESPE)-Filtek Z550, Filtek Flow and two experimental, micro-hybrid and flow type composites marked Ex-mhyb(P) and Ex-flow(P), respectively. All tests were carried out before and after hydro-thermal cycles (flowing water thermocycling). Micro-hardness test using the Vickers method, indentation hardness, and resistance to tribological wear in a ball-disc system in sliding friction conditions were performed. In addition, observations of the surface layer of composites on the SEM (scanning electron microscope) were carried out. It was noticed that semi-liquid composites, containing a smaller amount of filler, retain higher stability of mechanical and tribological properties of the surface layer under cyclic hydro-thermal loads. Coefficient of friction of samples after hydro-thermal cycles increased for micro-hybrid materials and Filtek Flow (FFlow) composite. In the case of Ex-flow(P) material, the coefficient of friction decreased. The microhardness of composites also changed, the variability of this size depended on the type of material. Composites with a higher content of filler particles were characterized by greater variability of microhardness under the influence of thermocycles. The resistance to tribological wear also changed in a similar way. Composites containing higher volume fraction of inorganic filler showed higher tribological wear after thermocycling. The wear resistance of flow composites changed to a lesser extent, after thermocycling increased. The paper also showed that, in real kinematic nodes, the surface layer of light-curing ceramic-polymer composites is exposed to significant non-tribological (erosive, thermal, and chemical) defects that synergize with tribological ones. In slip pairs loaded dynamically, under mixed friction conditions, tribological wear of PMCCs (polymer matrix ceramic composites) is manifested by spalling (spalling of the material flakes, in particular the polymer phase) and pitting (crushing wear caused by wear products, in particular large filler particles or clusters, previously adhesively extracted).

Influence of fibre reinforcement on selected mechanical properties of dental composites.

PURPOSE: For splinting or designing adhesive bridges, reconstructive composite structures with increased mechanical properties owing to embedded reinforcement fibres are used. The aim of this article was to determine the influence of glass and aramid fibres on the mechanical strength of composites reinforced with these fibres. METHODS: Two polymer-ceramic microhybrid materials: Boston and Herculite were tested. Three types of reinforcement fibres were used: aramid (Podwiazka) with a single layer weave, a single layer weave glass fibre (FSO) and triple layer weave glass fibre (FSO evo). Tests were conducted in accordance with the requirements of ISO 4049:2009. The following material types were chosen for research: Boston, Boston + Podwiazka, Herculite, Herculite + Podwiazka, Herculite + FSO and Herculite + FSO evo. The scope of research included: flexural strength B, bending modulus of elasticity εB and work to failure of the reinforced composite Wfb. Additionally, microscopic observations of fracture occurring in samples were made. RESULTS: In comparison: the Herculite (97.7 MPa) type with the Herculite + FSO evo (177.5 MPa) type was characterized by the highest strength. Fibre reinforcement resulted in decreasing the elasticity modulus: Herculite + reinforcement (6.86 GPa; 6.33 GPa; 6.11 GPa) in comparison with the Herculite (9.84 GPa) and respectively Boston + reinforcement (10.08 GPa) as compared with the Boston (11.81 GPa). CONCLUSIONS: Using glass fibres increases flexural strength of the test composites. Using aramid fibres does not change their strength. The elasticity modulus of the reinforced reconstructive structures decreases after application of either type of fibres. However, their resistance to the crack initiation increases.

Influence of photopolymerization parameters on the mechanical properties of polymer-ceramic composites applied in the conservative dentistry.

In this paper, the results of study of mechanical properties for four commercial polymer-ceramic composites applied in the conservative dentistry are presented, including one new silorane based composite and three standard composites based on methacrylate compounds. Influence of the type of light of diode and halogen polymerization lamps on the microhardness, flexural strength and elasticity were studied. Both exposed and unexposed specimens were taken into account. An exposure time was also differentiated (40 sec and 60 sec). Basic statistics of the analysed material parameters were determined. A post hoc test (Newman-Keuls) was performed in order to evaluate differences between microhardness of the materials studied, as well as Kruskal-Wallis test to evaluate differences in flexural strength and elasticity modulus of the material. It has been indicated that there is an impact of the type of lamp on the microhardness and flexural strength of composites with methacrylate matrix and lack of such impact in the case of composites containing siloranes. Additionally, it has been found that an increase of photopolymerization time has a significantly different impact on the mechanical properties depending on the type of irradiated material.

Phenomenological evaluation of fatigue cracking of dental restorations under conditions of cyclic mechanical loads.

This paper deals with microcracks in dental filling material and hard tissues of the teeth treated conservatively. Human teeth, removed due to orthodontic or surgical reasons, were the subject of those research studies. The studies have been conducted in vitro with the application of mastication simulator. It has been indicated that the number of cracks and the degree of their expansion increase with the number of load cycles. The number of microcracks of the filling material on the masticating surface is lower than in the deeper layers; however, they are more extensive. After applying a specified long load series a progressive increase of microcracks in the restoration material and their expansion in the contact zone with the dentine have been observed. It has been demonstrated that on the masticating surface the number of microcracks and their expansion were proportional to the number of load cycles.