TGFbeta3 and loading increases osteocyte survival in human cancellous bone cultured ex vivo.

The goal of this study was to assess the effect of the addition of TGFbeta(3), alone or in combination with loading, on the survival of osteocytes in 3D human explant cancellous bone during long-term culture in an ex vivo loading bioreactor. Human cancellous bone explants were cultured for up to 14 days with or without TGFbeta(3) (15 ng ml(-1)) and with or without loading (300 cycles, at 1 Hz, producing 4000 microstrain). Bone core response was visualized using undecalcified histology with morphological methods after embedding with Technovit 9100 New resin. Histological examination revealed normal gross level bone structure with or without the application of load or the addition of TGFbeta(3). The viability of the osteocytes within the bone was assessed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity. We demonstrate that this ex vivo loading bioreactor is able to maintain a high percentage (over 50%) of viable osteocytes throughout the bone explants after 14 days in ex vivo culture. Further to this, the combination of daily loading and TGFbeta(3) administration produced superior osteocyte survival at the core centres when compared to loading or TGFbeta alone.

The osteocyte lineage.

The osteocyte resides in the lacuna/canalicular system in bone and has been hypothesized to orchestrate local bone remodeling. Certainly the identification of the osteocyte as the source of Sclerostin, a molecule that regulates osteoblast function, has supported this possibility. As our understanding of this cell increases it has become clear that it has more far reaching influence than simply local bone turnover activity. The osteocyte is also the source of DMP-1 and FGF-23, the later being a hormone that regulates kidney function in terms of phosphate uptake. We now see the osteocyte as having important roles both locally in the skeleton and also in other distant tissues. The study of osteocyte biology has reached a particularly exiting level of maturity and illustrates the value of this cell type as a drug discovery target.

Apoptotic bodies convey activity capable of initiating osteoclastogenesis and localized bone destruction.

INTRODUCTION: Osteocyte apoptosis co-localizes with sites of osteoclastic bone resorption in vivo, but to date, no causal molecular or signaling link has been identified between these two processes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Osteocyte apoptotic bodies (OABs) derived from the MLO-Y4 osteocyte-like cell line and primary murine osteocytes and apoptotic bodies (ABs) derived from primary murine osteoblasts were introduced onto the right parietal bone of murine calvariae, and osteoclastic bone resorption was examined 5 days after treatment. In addition, the ability of primary murine and cell line-derived OABs to support osteoclastogenesis was examined in vitro in co-culture with murine bone marrow hematopoietic progenitors in the absence of RANKL or macrophage-colony stimulating factor. RESULTS: For the first time, we show that OABs are capable of initiating de novo osteoclastic bone resorption on quiescent bone surfaces in vivo. Furthermore, the addition of OABs to mononuclear osteoclast precursors (OPs) in vitro resulted in the maintenance of OP cell numbers and an increase in the proportion and activity of TRACP(+) cells. In contrast, application of ABs from osteoblasts showed no osteoclastogenic activity either in vivo or in vitro. The osteoclastogenic capacity of OABs was shown to be independent of the known osteoclastogenic factor RANKL but dependent on the induction of TNF-alpha production by OP. CONCLUSIONS: These data point to a mechanism by which dying osteocytes might target bone destruction through the distribution of OAB-associated signals and give further physiological meaning to the apoptotic process in bone.

The biology of osteocytes.

Osteocytes, the most abundant cell type in bone, remain the least characterized. Several theories have been proposed regarding their function, including osteolysis, sensing the strains produced in response to mechanical loading of bones, and producing signals that affect the function of osteoblasts and osteoclasts and hence, bone turnover. This review also discusses the role of osteocyte apoptosis in targeted bone remodeling and proposes that the occurrence of osteocyte apoptosis is consistent with the description of apoptosis as an essential homeostatic mechanism for the healthy maintenance of tissues.

Physiologic oxygen enhances human embryonic stem cell clonal recovery and reduces chromosomal abnormalities.

Human embryonic stem cells (hESC) have great potential in regenerative medicine, provided that culture systems are established that maintain genomic integrity. Here we describe a comparison of the effects of culture in either physiologic oxygen (2%) or room oxygen (21%) on the hESC lines, H1, H9, and RH1. Physiologic oxygen enabled an average sixfold increase in clone recovery across the hESC lines tested (p < 0.001). FACS analysis showed that cells cultured in physiologic oxygen were significantly smaller and less granular. No significant changes had occurred in levels of SSEA4, SSEA1, TRA-1-60, or TRA-1-81. While karyotypic normalcy was maintained in both H1 and H9, the frequency of spontaneous chromosomal aberrations was significantly increased in room oxygen. This increase was not observed in physiologic oxygen. These results clearly demonstrate that physiologic oxygen culture conditions are indispensable for robust hES clone recovery and may enhance the isolation of novel hES lines and transgenic clones.

Compartmentalized megakaryocyte death generates functional platelets committed to caspase-independent death.

Caspase-directed apoptosis usually fragments cells, releasing nonfunctional, prothrombogenic, membrane-bound apoptotic bodies marked for rapid engulfment by macrophages. Blood platelets are functional anucleate cells generated by specialized fragmentation of their progenitors, megakaryocytes (MKs), but committed to a constitutive caspase-independent death. Constitutive formation of the proplatelet-bearing MK was recently reported to be caspase-dependent, apparently involving mitochondrial release of cytochrome c, a known pro-apoptogenic factor. We extend those studies and report that activation of caspases in MKs, either constitutively or after Fas ligation, yields platelets that are functionally responsive and evade immediate phagocytic clearance, and retain mitochondrial transmembrane potential until constitutive platelet death ensues. Furthermore, the exclusion from the platelet progeny of caspase-9 present in the progenitor accounts for failure of mitochondrial release of cytochrome c to activate caspase-3 during platelet death. Thus, progenitor cell death by apoptosis can result in birth of multiple functional anucleate daughter cells.

Mechanical loading: biphasic osteocyte survival and targeting of osteoclasts for bone destruction in rat cortical bone.

Bone is removed or replaced in defined locations by targeting osteoclasts and osteoblasts in response to its local history of mechanical loading. There is increasing evidence that osteocytes modulate this targeting by their apoptosis, which is associated with locally increased bone resorption. To investigate the role of osteocytes in the control of loading-related modeling or remodeling, we studied the effects on osteocyte viability of short periods of mechanical loading applied to the ulnae of rats. Loading, which produced peak compressive strains of -0.003 or -0.004, was associated with a 78% reduction in the resorption surface at the midshaft. The same loading regimen resulted in a 40% relative reduction in osteocyte apoptosis at the same site 3 days after loading compared with the contralateral side (P = 0.01). The proportion of osteocytes that were apoptotic was inversely related to the estimated local strain (P < 0.02). In contrast, a single short period of loading resulting in strains of -0.008 engendered both tissue microdamage and subsequent bone remodeling and was associated with an eightfold increase in the proportion of apoptotic osteocytes (P = 0.02) at 7 days. This increase in osteocyte apoptosis was transient and preceded both intracortical remodeling and death of half of the osteocytes (P < 0.01). The data suggest that osteocytes might use their U-shaped survival response to strain as a mechanism to influence bone remodeling. We hypothesize that this relationship reflects a causal mechanism by which osteocyte apoptosis regulates bone's structural architecture.