Reactive astrocytes secrete the chaperone HSPB1 to mediate neuroprotection.

Molecular chaperones are protective in neurodegenerative diseases by preventing protein misfolding and aggregation, such as extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular tau neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, AD is characterized by an increase in astrocyte reactivity. The chaperone HSPB1 has been proposed as a marker for reactive astrocytes; however, its astrocytic functions in neurodegeneration remain to be elucidated. Here, we identify that HSPB1 is secreted from astrocytes to exert non-cell-autonomous protective functions. We show that in human AD brain, HSPB1 levels increase in astrocytes that cluster around amyloid plaques, as well as in the adjacent extracellular space. Moreover, in conditions that mimic an inflammatory reactive response, astrocytes increase HSPB1 secretion. Concomitantly, astrocytes and neurons can uptake astrocyte-secreted HSPB1, which is accompanied by an attenuation of the inflammatory response in reactive astrocytes and reduced pathological tau inclusions. Our findings highlight a protective mechanism in disease conditions that encompasses the secretion of a chaperone typically regarded as intracellular.

Stimulating VAPB-PTPIP51 ER-mitochondria tethering corrects FTD/ALS mutant TDP43 linked Ca2+ and synaptic defects.

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are clinically linked major neurodegenerative diseases. Notably, TAR DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP43) accumulations are hallmark pathologies of FTD/ALS and mutations in the gene encoding TDP43 cause familial FTD/ALS. There are no cures for FTD/ALS. FTD/ALS display damage to a broad range of physiological functions, many of which are regulated by signaling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. This signaling is mediated by the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethering proteins that serve to recruit regions of ER to the mitochondrial surface so as to facilitate inter-organelle communications. Several studies have now shown that disrupted ER-mitochondria signaling including breaking of the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers are features of FTD/ALS and that for TDP43 and other familial genetic FTD/ALS insults, this involves activation of glycogen kinase-3ß (GSK3ß). Such findings have prompted suggestions that correcting damage to ER-mitochondria signaling and the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction may be broadly therapeutic. Here we provide evidence to support this notion. We show that overexpression of VAPB or PTPIP51 to enhance ER-mitochondria signaling corrects mutant TDP43 induced damage to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptor delivery of Ca2+ to mitochondria which is a primary function of the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers, and to synaptic function. Moreover, we show that ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), an FDA approved drug linked to FTD/ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases therapy and whose precise therapeutic target is unclear, corrects TDP43 linked damage to the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction. We also show that this effect involves inhibition of TDP43 mediated activation of GSK3ß. Thus, correcting damage to the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers may have therapeutic value for FTD/ALS and other age-related neurodegenerative diseases.

Artificial intelligence for neurodegenerative experimental models.

INTRODUCTION: Experimental models are essential tools in neurodegenerative disease research. However, the translation of insights and drugs discovered in model systems has proven immensely challenging, marred by high failure rates in human clinical trials. METHODS: Here we review the application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in experimental medicine for dementia research. RESULTS: Considering the specific challenges of reproducibility and translation between other species or model systems and human biology in preclinical dementia research, we highlight best practices and resources that can be leveraged to quantify and evaluate translatability. We then evaluate how AI and ML approaches could be applied to enhance both cross-model reproducibility and translation to human biology, while sustaining biological interpretability. DISCUSSION: AI and ML approaches in experimental medicine remain in their infancy. However, they have great potential to strengthen preclinical research and translation if based upon adequate, robust, and reproducible experimental data. HIGHLIGHTS: There are increasing applications of AI in experimental medicine. We identified issues in reproducibility, cross-species translation, and data curation in the field. Our review highlights data resources and AI approaches as solutions. Multi-omics analysis with AI offers exciting future possibilities in drug discovery.

P2X7R influences tau aggregate burden in human tauopathies and shows distinct signalling in microglia and astrocytes.

The purinoceptor P2X7R is a promising therapeutic target for tauopathies, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Pharmacological inhibition or genetic knockdown of P2X7R ameliorates cognitive deficits and reduces pathological tau burden in mice that model aspects of tauopathy, including mice expressing mutant human frontotemporal dementia (FTD)-causing forms of tau. However, disagreements remain over which glial cell types express P2X7R and therefore the mechanism of action is unresolved. Here, we show that P2X7R protein levels increase in human AD post-mortem brain, in agreement with an upregulation of P2RX7 mRNA observed in transcriptome profiles from the AMP-AD consortium. P2X7R protein increases mirror advancing Braak stage and coincide with synapse loss. Using RNAScope we detect P2RX7 mRNA in microglia and astrocytes in human AD brain, including in the vicinity of senile plaques. In cultured microglia, P2X7R activation modulates the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway by promoting the formation of active complexes and release of IL-1ß. In astrocytes, P2X7R activates NFκB signalling and increases production of the cytokines CCL2, CXCL1 and IL-6 together with the acute phase protein Lcn2. To further explore the role of P2X7R in a disease-relevant context, we expressed wild-type or FTD-causing mutant forms of tau in mouse organotypic brain slice cultures. Inhibition of P2X7R reduces insoluble tau levels without altering soluble tau phosphorylation or synaptic localisation, suggesting a non-cell autonomous role of glial P2X7R on pathological tau aggregation. These findings support further investigations into the cell-type specific effects of P2X7R-targeting therapies in tauopathies.

Trimming away tau in neurodegeneration.

Tau quality control by tripartite motif 11 (TRIM11) protects neurons in mice.

Proteomics of the astrocyte secretome reveals changes in their response to soluble oligomeric Aß.

Astrocytes associate with amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Astrocytes react to changes in the brain environment, including increasing concentrations of amyloid-ß (Aß). However, the precise response of astrocytes to soluble small Aß oligomers at concentrations similar to those present in the human brain has not been addressed. In this study, we exposed astrocytes to media from neurons that express the human amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgene with the double Swedish mutation (APPSwe), and which contains APP-derived fragments, including soluble human Aß oligomers. We then used proteomics to investigate changes in the astrocyte secretome. Our data show dysregulated secretion of astrocytic proteins involved in the extracellular matrix and cytoskeletal organization and increase secretion of proteins involved in oxidative stress responses and those with chaperone activity. Several of these proteins have been identified in previous transcriptomic and proteomic studies using brain tissue from human AD and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Our work highlights the relevance of studying astrocyte secretion to understand the brain response to AD pathology and the potential use of these proteins as biomarkers for the disease.

Astrocyte adaptation in Alzheimer's disease: a focus on astrocytic P2X7R.

Astrocytes are key homeostatic and defensive cells of the central nervous system (CNS). They undertake numerous functions during development and in adulthood to support and protect the brain through finely regulated communication with other cellular elements of the nervous tissue. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), astrocytes undergo heterogeneous morphological, molecular and functional alterations represented by reactive remodelling, asthenia and loss of function. Reactive astrocytes closely associate with amyloid ß (Aß) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in advanced AD. The specific contribution of astrocytes to AD could potentially evolve along the disease process and includes alterations in their signalling, interactions with pathological protein aggregates, metabolic and synaptic impairments. In this review, we focus on the purinergic receptor, P2X7R, and discuss the evidence that P2X7R activation contributes to altered astrocyte functions in AD. Expression of P2X7R is increased in AD brain relative to non-demented controls, and animal studies have shown that P2X7R antagonism improves cognitive and synaptic impairments in models of amyloidosis and tauopathy. While P2X7R activation can induce inflammatory signalling pathways, particularly in microglia, we focus here specifically on the contributions of astrocytic P2X7R to synaptic changes and protein aggregate clearance in AD, highlighting cell-specific roles of this purinoceptor activation that could be targeted to slow disease progression.

Disruption of the VAPB-PTPIP51 ER-mitochondria tethering proteins in post-mortem human amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Signaling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria regulates many neuronal functions that are perturbed in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and perturbation to ER-mitochondria signaling is seen in cell and transgenic models of ALS. However, there is currently little evidence that ER-mitochondria signaling is altered in human ALS. ER-mitochondria signaling is mediated by interactions between the integral ER protein VAPB and the outer mitochondrial membrane protein PTPIP51 which act to recruit and "tether" regions of ER to the mitochondrial surface. The VAPB-PTPI51 tethers are now known to regulate a number of ER-mitochondria signaling functions. These include delivery of Ca2+ from ER stores to mitochondria, mitochondrial ATP production, autophagy and synaptic activity. Here we investigate the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers in post-mortem control and ALS spinal cords. We show that VAPB protein levels are reduced in ALS. Proximity ligation assays were then used to quantify the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction in spinal cord motor neurons in control and ALS cases. These studies revealed that the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers are disrupted in ALS. Thus, we identify a new pathogenic event in post-mortem ALS.

The PTPIP51 coiled-coil domain is important in VAPB binding, formation of ER-mitochondria contacts and IP3 receptor delivery of Ca2+ to mitochondria.

Signaling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria regulates a number of fundamental physiological processes. This signaling involves close physical contacts between the two organelles that are mediated by the VAPB-PTPIP51 ″tethering" proteins. The VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers facilitate inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptor delivery of Ca2+ from ER to mitochondria. Damage to the tethers is seen in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and frontotemporal dementia with related amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (FTD/ALS). Understanding the mechanisms that regulate the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction thus represents an important area of research. Recent studies suggest that an FFAT motif in PTPIP51 is key to its binding to VAPB but this work relies on in vitro studies with short peptides. Cellular studies to support this notion with full-length proteins are lacking. Here we address this issue. Immunoprecipitation assays from transfected cells revealed that deletion of the PTPIP51 FFAT motif has little effect on VAPB binding. However, mutation and deletion of a nearby coiled-coil domain markedly affect this binding. Using electron microscopy, we then show that deletion of the coiled-coil domain but not the FFAT motif abrogates the effect of PTPIP51 on ER-mitochondria contacts. Finally, we show that deletion of the coiled-coil domain but not the FFAT motif abrogates the effect of PTPIP51 on the IP3 receptor-mediated delivery of Ca2+ to mitochondria. Thus, the coiled-coil domain is essential for PTPIP51 ER-mitochondria signaling functions.

Cysteine string protein alpha accumulates with early pre-synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease.

In Alzheimer's disease, synapse loss causes memory and cognitive impairment. However, the mechanisms underlying synaptic degeneration in Alzheimer's disease are not well understood. In the hippocampus, alterations in the level of cysteine string protein alpha, a molecular co-chaperone at the pre-synaptic terminal, occur prior to reductions in synaptophysin, suggesting that it is a very sensitive marker of synapse degeneration in Alzheimer's. Here, we identify putative extracellular accumulations of cysteine string alpha protein, which are proximal to beta-amyloid deposits in post-mortem human Alzheimer's brain and in the brain of a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Cysteine string protein alpha, at least some of which is phosphorylated at serine 10, accumulates near the core of beta-amyloid deposits and does not co-localize with hyperphosphorylated tau, dystrophic neurites or glial cells. Using super-resolution microscopy and array tomography, cysteine string protein alpha was found to accumulate to a greater extent than other pre-synaptic proteins and at a comparatively great distance from the plaque core. This indicates that cysteine string protein alpha is most sensitive to being released from pre-synapses at low concentrations of beta-amyloid oligomers. Cysteine string protein alpha accumulations were also evident in other neurodegenerative diseases, including some fronto-temporal lobar dementias and Lewy body diseases, but only in the presence of amyloid plaques. Our findings are consistent with suggestions that pre-synapses are affected early in Alzheimer's disease, and they demonstrate that cysteine string protein alpha is a more sensitive marker for early pre-synaptic dysfunction than traditional synaptic markers. We suggest that cysteine string protein alpha should be used as a pathological marker for early synaptic disruption caused by beta-amyloid.

Targeting ER-Mitochondria Signaling as a Therapeutic Target for Frontotemporal Dementia and Related Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are two major neurodegenerative diseases. FTD is the second most common cause of dementia and ALS is the most common form of motor neuron disease. These diseases are now known to be linked. There are no cures or effective treatments for FTD or ALS and so new targets for therapeutic intervention are required but this is hampered by the large number of physiological processes that are damaged in FTD/ALS. Many of these damaged functions are now known to be regulated by signaling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. This signaling is mediated by "tethering" proteins that serve to recruit ER to mitochondria. One tether strongly associated with FTD/ALS involves an interaction between the ER protein VAPB and the mitochondrial protein PTPIP51. Recent studies have shown that ER-mitochondria signaling is damaged in FTD/ALS and that this involves breaking of the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers. Correcting disrupted tethering may therefore correct many other downstream damaged features of FTD/ALS. Here, we review progress on this topic with particular emphasis on targeting of the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers as a new drug target.

Investigating key factors underlying neurodegeneration linked to alpha-synuclein spread.

AIMS: It has long been considered that accumulation of pathological alpha-synuclein (aSyn) leads to synaptic/neuronal loss which then results in behavioural and cognitive dysfunction. To investigate this claim, we investigated effects downstream of aSyn preformed fibrils (PFFs) and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), because aSyn PFFs induce spreading/accumulation of aSyn, and 6-OHDA rapidly causes local neuronal loss. METHODS: We injected mouse aSyn PFFs into the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) of Sprague-Dawley rats. We investigated spread of pathological aSyn, phosphorylation of aSyn and tau, oxidative stress, synaptic/neuronal loss and cognitive dysfunction 60, 90 and 120 days after injection. Similarly, we injected 6-OHDA into the MFB and examined the same parameters 1 and 3 weeks after injection. RESULTS: Following aSyn PFF injection, phosphorylated aSyn was found distant from the injection site in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. However, despite neuron loss being evident close to the site of injection in the substantia nigra at 120 days post injection, there were no other neurodegeneration-associated features associated with aSyn including synaptic loss. In contrast, 6-OHDA caused severe neuronal loss in the substantia nigra at 3 weeks post injection that was accompanied by phosphorylation of aSyn and tau, oxidative stress, loss of synaptic proteins, cognitive and motor dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that spread/replication and slow accumulation of pathological aSyn may not be sufficient to induce neurodegenerative changes. In contrast, oxidative stress responses in addition to aSyn accumulation were associated with other Parkinson's disease (PD)-associated abnormalities and cognitive dysfunction. Our results may be important when considering why only some PD patients develop dementia.

Disruption of ER-mitochondria tethering and signalling in C9orf72-associated amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia.

Hexanucleotide repeat expansions in C9orf72 are the most common cause of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The mechanisms by which the expansions cause disease are not properly understood but a favoured route involves its translation into dipeptide repeat (DPR) polypeptides, some of which are neurotoxic. However, the precise targets for mutant C9orf72 and DPR toxicity are not fully clear, and damage to several neuronal functions has been described. Many of these functions are regulated by signalling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. ER-mitochondria signalling requires close physical contacts between the two organelles that are mediated by the VAPB-PTPIP51 'tethering' proteins. Here, we show that ER-mitochondria signalling and the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers are disrupted in neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells from patients carrying ALS/FTD pathogenic C9orf72 expansions and in affected neurons in mutant C9orf72 transgenic mice. In these mice, disruption of the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers occurs prior to disease onset suggesting that it contributes to the pathogenic process. We also show that neurotoxic DPRs disrupt the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction and ER-mitochondria contacts and that this may involve activation of glycogen synthase kinases-3ß (GSK3ß), a known negative regulator of VAPB-PTPIP51 binding. Finally, we show that these DPRs disrupt delivery of Ca2+ from ER stores to mitochondria, which is a primary function of the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers. This delivery regulates a number of key neuronal functions that are damaged in ALS/FTD including bioenergetics, autophagy and synaptic function. Our findings reveal a new molecular target for mutant C9orf72-mediated toxicity.

Astrocytic C-X-C motif chemokine ligand-1 mediates ß-amyloid-induced synaptotoxicity.

BACKGROUND: Pathological interactions between ß-amyloid (Aß) and tau drive synapse loss and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Reactive astrocytes, displaying altered functions, are also a prominent feature of AD brain. This large and heterogeneous population of cells are increasingly recognised as contributing to early phases of disease. However, the contribution of astrocytes to Aß-induced synaptotoxicity in AD is not well understood. METHODS: We stimulated mouse and human astrocytes with conditioned medium containing concentrations and species of human Aß that mimic those in human AD brain. Medium from stimulated astrocytes was collected and immunodepleted of Aß before being added to naïve rodent or human neuron cultures. A cytokine, identified in unbiased screens of stimulated astrocyte media and in postmortem human AD brain lysates was also applied to neurons, including those pre-treated with a chemokine receptor antagonist. Tau mislocalisation, synaptic markers and dendritic spine numbers were measured in cultured neurons and organotypic brain slice cultures. RESULTS: We found that conditioned medium from stimulated astrocytes induces exaggerated synaptotoxicity that is recapitulated following spiking of neuron culture medium with recombinant C-X-C motif chemokine ligand-1 (CXCL1), a chemokine upregulated in AD brain. Antagonism of neuronal C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2) prevented synaptotoxicity in response to CXCL1 and Aß-stimulated astrocyte secretions. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that astrocytes exacerbate the synaptotoxic effects of Aß via interactions of astrocytic CXCL1 and neuronal CXCR2 receptors, highlighting this chemokine-receptor pair as a novel target for therapeutic intervention in AD.

Tau in the gut, does it really matter?

The enteric nervous system plays a critical role in the regulation of gastrointestinal tract functions and is often referred to as the 'second brain' because it shares many features with the central nervous system. These similarities include among others a large panel of neurotransmitters, a large population of glial cells and a susceptibility to neurodegeneration. This close homology between the central and enteric nervous systems suggests that a disease process affecting the central nervous system could also involve its enteric counterpart. This was already documented in Parkinson's disease, the most common synucleinopathy, in which alpha-synuclein deposits are reported in the enteric nervous system in the vast majority of patients. Tau is another key protein involved in neurodegenerative disorders of the brain. Whether changes in tau also occur in the enteric nervous system during gut or brain disorders has just begun to be explored. The scope of the present article is therefore to review existing studies on the expression and phosphorylation pattern of tau in the enteric nervous system under physiological and pathological conditions and to discuss the possible occurrence of 'enteric tauopathies'.

Oxysterols present in Alzheimer's disease brain induce synaptotoxicity by activating astrocytes: A major role for lipocalin-2.

Among Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain hallmarks, the presence of reactive astrocytes was demonstrated to correlate with neuronal loss and cognitive deficits. Evidence indeed supports the role of reactive astrocytes as mediators of changes in neurons, including synapses. However, the complexity and the outcomes of astrocyte reactivity are far from being completely elucidated. Another key role in AD pathogenesis is played by alterations in brain cholesterol metabolism. Oxysterols (cholesterol oxidation products) are crucial for brain cholesterol homeostasis, and we previously demonstrated that changes in the brain levels of various oxysterols correlate with AD progression. Moreover, oxysterols have been shown to contribute to various pathological mechanisms involved in AD pathogenesis. In order to deepen the role of oxysterols in AD, we investigated whether they could contribute to astrocyte reactivity, and consequently impact on neuronal health. Results showed that oxysterols present in mild or severe AD brains induce a clear morphological change in mouse primary astrocytes, accompanied by the upregulation of some reactive astrocyte markers, including lipocalin-2 (Lcn2). Moreover, astrocyte conditioned media analysis revealed a significant increase in the release of Lcn2, cytokines, and chemokines in response to oxysterols. A significant reduction of postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) and a concurrent increase in cleaved caspase-3 protein levels have been demonstrated in neurons co-cultured with oxysterol-treated astrocytes, pointing out that mediators released by astrocytes have an impact on neurons. Among these mediators, Lcn2 has been demonstrated to play a major role on synapses, affecting neurite morphology and decreasing dendritic spine density. These data demonstrated that oxysterols present in the AD brain promote astrocyte reactivity, determining the release of several mediators that affect neuronal health and synapses. Lcn2 has been shown to exert a key role in mediating the synaptotoxic effect of oxysterol-treated astrocytes.

Astrocytes in Tauopathies.

Tauopathies are a group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the progressive accumulation across the brain of hyperphosphorylated aggregates of the microtubule-associated protein tau that vary in isoform composition, structural conformation and localization. Tau aggregates are most commonly deposited within neurons but can show differential association with astrocytes, depending on the disease. Astrocytes, the most abundant neural cells in the brain, play a major role in synapse and neuronal function, and are a key component of the glymphatic system and blood brain barrier. However, their contribution to tauopathy progression is not fully understood. Here we present a brief overview of the association of tau with astrocytes in tauopathies. We discuss findings that support a role for astrocytes in the uptake and spread of pathological tau, and we describe how alterations to astrocyte phenotype in tauopathies may cause functional alterations that impedes their ability to support neurons and/or cause neurotoxicity. The research reviewed here further highlights the importance of considering non-neuronal cells in neurodegeneration and suggests that astrocyte-directed targets that may have utility for therapeutic intervention in tauopathies.

Disruption of endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria tethering proteins in post-mortem Alzheimer's disease brain.

Signaling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria regulates a number of key neuronal functions, many of which are perturbed in Alzheimer's disease. Moreover, damage to ER-mitochondria signaling is seen in cell and transgenic models of Alzheimer's disease. However, as yet there is little evidence that ER-mitochondria signaling is altered in human Alzheimer's disease brains. ER-mitochondria signaling is mediated by interactions between the integral ER protein VAPB and the outer mitochondrial membrane protein PTPIP51 which act to recruit and "tether" regions of ER to the mitochondrial surface. The VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers are now known to regulate a number of ER-mitochondria signaling functions including delivery of Ca2+from ER stores to mitochondria, mitochondrial ATP production, autophagy and synaptic activity. Here we investigate the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers in post-mortem control and Alzheimer's disease brains. Quantification of ER-mitochondria signaling proteins by immunoblotting revealed loss of VAPB and PTPIP51 in cortex but not cerebellum at end-stage Alzheimer's disease. Proximity ligation assays were used to quantify the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction in temporal cortex pyramidal neurons and cerebellar Purkinje cell neurons in control, Braak stage III-IV (early/mid-dementia) and Braak stage VI (severe dementia) cases. Pyramidal neurons degenerate in Alzheimer's disease whereas Purkinje cells are less affected. These studies revealed that the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers are disrupted in Braak stage III-IV pyramidal but not Purkinje cell neurons. Thus, we identify a new pathogenic event in post-mortem Alzheimer's disease brains. The implications of our findings for Alzheimer's disease mechanisms are discussed.