Polyneuropathy in Young Siberian Huskies Caused by Degenerative and Inflammatory Diseases.

Polyneuropathy is defined as the simultaneous dysfunction of several peripheral nerves. In dogs, a number of breeds are predisposed to a variety of immune-mediated and/or degenerative inherited forms of polyneuropathy, with laryngeal paralysis and/or megaesophagus as important clinical features of many of these conditions. This case series describes degenerative and inflammatory polyneuropathies in 7 young Siberian huskies that were categorized based on clinicopathological characteristics as follows: (1) slowly progressive laryngeal paralysis and megaesophagus caused by primary axonal degeneration with large fiber loss (n = 2); (2) slowly progressive polyneuropathy without megaesophagus or laryngeal paralysis caused by primary axonal degeneration with large fiber loss (n = 2); (3) acute inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy causing sensory, motor and autonomic nerve deficits (n = 2); and (4) ganglioradiculitis (sensory neuronopathy; n = 1). Based on the predominantly young age at onset, slow progression, relatedness of affected dogs, and clinical and pathological similarities with inherited neuropathies reported in other dog breeds, a hereditary basis for the degenerative polyneuropathies in Siberian huskies is suspected. However, 5 different mutations in 3 genes known to cause polyneuropathy in other dog breeds (NDRG1, ARHGEF10, or RAB3GAP1) were not detected in the affected Siberian huskies suggesting that more genetic variants remain to be identified. This study highlights the varied underlying lesions of polyneuropathies in young Siberian huskies.

Muscular dystrophy in the Japanese Spitz: an inversion disrupts the DMD and RPGR genes.

An X-linked muscular dystrophy, with deficiency of full-length dystrophin and expression of a low molecular weight dystrophin-related protein, has been described in Japanese Spitz dogs. The aim of this study was to identify the causative mutation and develop a specific test to identify affected cases and carrier animals. Gene expression studies in skeletal muscle of an affected animal indicated aberrant expression of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (dystrophin) gene and an anomaly in intron 19 of the gene. Genome-walking experiments revealed an inversion that interrupts two genes on the X chromosome, the Duchenne muscular dystrophy gene and the retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator gene. All clinically affected dogs and obligate carriers that were tested had the mutant chromosome, and it is concluded that the inversion is the causative mutation for X-linked muscular dystrophy in the Japanese Spitz breed. A PCR assay that amplifies mutant and wild-type alleles was developed and proved capable of identifying affected and carrier individuals. Unexpectedly, a 7-year-old male animal, which had not previously come to clinical attention, was shown to possess the mutant allele and to have a relatively mild form of the disease. This observation indicates phenotypic heterogeneity in Japanese Spitz muscular dystrophy, a feature described previously in humans and Golden Retrievers. With the availability of a simple, fast and accurate test for Japanese Spitz muscular dystrophy, detection of carrier animals and selected breeding should help eliminate the mutation from the breed.

An exon splice enhancer primes IGF2:IGF2R binding site structure and function evolution.

Placental development and genomic imprinting coevolved with parental conflict over resource distribution to mammalian offspring. The imprinted genes IGF2 and IGF2R code for the growth promoter insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) and its inhibitor, mannose 6-phosphate (M6P)/IGF2 receptor (IGF2R), respectively. M6P/IGF2R of birds and fish do not recognize IGF2. In monotremes, which lack imprinting, IGF2 specifically bound M6P/IGF2R via a hydrophobic CD loop. We show that the DNA coding the CD loop in monotremes functions as an exon splice enhancer (ESE) and that structural evolution of binding site loops (AB, HI, FG) improved therian IGF2 affinity. We propose that ESE evolution led to the fortuitous acquisition of IGF2 binding by M6P/IGF2R that drew IGF2R into parental conflict; subsequent imprinting may then have accelerated affinity maturation.

Unique topographic distribution of greyhound nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis.

Greyhound nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis is an idiopathic breed-associated fatal meningoencephalitis with lesions usually occurring within the rostral cerebrum. This disorder can only be confirmed by postmortem examination, with a diagnosis based upon the unique topography of inflammatory lesions. Our purpose was to describe the magnetic resonance (MR) imaging features of this disease. Four Greyhounds with confirmed Greyhound nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis were evaluated by MR imaging. Lesions predominantly affected the olfactory lobes and bulbs, frontal, and frontotemporal cortical gray matter, and caudate nuclei bilaterally. Fluid attenuation inversion recovery (FLAIR) and T2 weighted spin-echo (T2W) sequences were most useful to assess the nature, severity, extension, and topographic pattern of lesions. Lesions were predominantly T2-hyperintense and T1-isointense with minimal or absent contrast enhancement.

Insulin-like growth factor-2 regulates early neural and cardiovascular system development in zebrafish embryos.

The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) family is essential for normal embryonic growth and development and it is highly conserved through vertebrate evolution. However, the roles that the individual members of the IGF family play in embryonic development have not been fully elucidated. This study focuses on the role of IGF-2 in zebrafish embryonic development. Two igf-2 genes, igf-2a and igf-2b, are present in the zebrafish genome. Antisense morpholinos were designed to knock down both igf-2 genes. The neural and cardiovascular defects in IGF-2 morphant embryos were then examined further using wholemount in situ hybridisation, TUNEL analysis and O-dianisidine staining. Knockdown of igf-2a or igf-2b resulted in ventralised embryos with reduced growth, reduced eyes, disrupted brain structures and a disrupted cardiovascular system, with igf-2b playing a more significant role in development. During gastrulation, igf-2a and igf-2b are required for development of anterior neural structures and for regulation of genes critical to dorsal-ventral patterning. As development proceeds, igf-2a and igf-2b play anti-apoptotic roles. Gene expression analysis demonstrates that igf-2a and igf-2b play overlapping roles in angiogenesis and cardiac outflow tract development. Igf-2b is specifically required for cardiac valve development and cardiac looping. Injection of a dominant negative IGF-1 receptor led to similar defects in angiogenesis and cardiac valve development, indicating IGF-2 signals through this receptor to regulate cardiovascular development. This is the first study describing two functional igf-2 genes in zebrafish. This work demonstrates that igf-2a and igf-2b are critical to neural and cardiovascular development in zebrafish embryos. The finding that igf-2a and igf-2b do not act exclusively in a redundant manner may explain why both genes have been stably maintained in the genome.

Regulation of expression of zebrafish (Danio rerio) insulin-like growth factor 2 receptor: implications for evolution at the IGF2R locus.

The insulin-like growth factor 2 receptor (IGF2R) is an unusual multifunctional receptor that interacts with a diverse variety of ligands. While the receptor has been well-characterized in mammals, little is known of its biology in other vertebrates. In this report, we characterize the expression of the zebrafish (Danio rerio) ortholog of the IGF2R gene. We show that two distinct, cell-type-specific promoters drive transcription of zebrafish igf2r and that these encode receptor isoforms that differ in their amino termini. Both promoters are active in adult fish and during embryonic development, but the proximal promoter generates more abundant transcripts. The 5'-UTR of the more abundantly expressed transcript contains several AUGs upstream of the main start codon, and these negatively regulate translation of a downstream reporter gene. Comparative sequence analysis shows that upstream AUGs (uAUGs) are a feature of IGF2R genes in several other vertebrates, including Xiphophorus, Xenopus, chicken, platypus, and opossum, but not in eutherian mammals. The IGF2R is imprinted in marsupial and placental mammals, and this transcriptional control of receptor abundance was proposed to have evolved following acquisition of an insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) binding site by the ancestral receptor. Our observations suggest that receptor abundance was regulated at translation in ancestral vertebrates, before acquisition of an IGF2 binding site. We propose that evolution of imprinting at the mammalian IGF2R may have facilitated the loss of negative regulation of translation conferred by uAUGs.

Imprinted expression of the canine IGF2R, in the absence of an anti-sense transcript or promoter methylation.

Imprinted genes are epigenetically modified in a parent of origin-dependent manner, and as a consequence, are differentially expressed. Although the evolution of genomic imprinting is a subject of intense debate, imprinted genes have been studied primarily in mice and humans and in a small number of marsupial mammals. Comparative studies involving rodents and primates are of limited value, as they belong to the same superordinal group of eutherian mammals (Euarchontoglires). On the other hand, comparisons involving marsupials may not be informative, due to phylogenetic distance. Canis familiaris belongs to Laurasiatheria, a sister-group of Euarchontoglires, and should prove useful in comparative studies of imprinted genes. Using RT-PCR we demonstrate monoallelic expression of the canine IGF2R in several tissues, including uterus and umbilical cord. In the case of umbilical cord, we identify the expressed allele as maternally derived. The canine IGF2R is thus an imprinted gene. Using bisulfite sequencing, we show that the canine IGF2R resembles the imprinted mouse Igf2r in having a CpG island in intron 2 that is hemi-methylated. However, it differs from the mouse gene in that maintenance of the monoallelic expression of canine IGF2R does not require expression of an anti-sense transcript from the paternally derived allele, or methylation of the repressed IGF2R promoter. In these two important features, the imprinted canine gene resembles the imprinted opossum IGF2R. Our data suggest that these features were properties of the ancestral imprinted IGF2R and that the anti-sense transcript (Air) and promoter methylation observed in mouse are derived features of the mouse Igf2r locus.

Circulating insulin-like growth factors and related binding proteins are selectively altered in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a detailed profile of the peripheral IGF system in the neurological conditions; amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), post polio syndrome (PPS) and multiple sclerosis (MS). To determine whether subsets of patients within the disease groups could be identified in whom one or more components of the IGF regulatory system are altered compared to healthy control subjects matched for age, sex and BMI. DESIGN: Three cohorts of patients were recruited, 28 with ALS, 18 with PPS and 23 with MS. Patients were individually matched to a healthy control based on sex, age (+/-3 yr), and BMI (+/-2.5 kg m(-2)). The concentration (ng/ml) of serum IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-1, IGFBP-2 and IGFBP-3 and acid-labile subunit (microg/ml) was determined by IRMA. RESULTS: In ALS patients, there was an increase of 11% in [IGF(TOTAL)] (p=0.042) ([IGF(TOTAL)]=[IGF-I]+[IGF-II]) and [IGFBP-1] was decreased by 34% (p=0.050) compared to matched controls. In "surviving" ALS patients, defined as those ALS patients with long disease duration (+2 SD from the mean survival time for Irish patients post diagnosis), there was an increase in [IGF-I] 36% (p=0.032) and a large decrease in [IGFBP-1] -58% (p=0.020) compared to controls. These differences were not evident in pre-agonal ALS patients. The concentration of serum IGF-I was 38% (p=0.018), acid-labile subunit 17% (p=0.044) and IGFBP-2 43% (p=0.035) higher in MS patients compared to controls. When stratified for interferon-beta (IFN-beta) use, we observed an increase in serum [IGF-I] 52% (p=0.013) and [IGF(TOTAL)] 19% (p=0.043) in MS patients undergoing IFN-beta treatment, but MS patients not undergoing IFN-beta treatment had similar IGF and IGFBP concentration to controls. Serum [IGFBP-3] 18% (p=0.033), [IGFBP-2] 86% (p=0.015) and (acid-labile subunit) 33% (p=0.012) was also higher in IFN-beta patients compared to controls. Stratified by stage of disease the most significant increase in components of the peripheral IGF system was attributed to relapsing-remitting MS patients treated with IFN-beta. All components of the peripheral IGF system in PPS patients were similar to controls. CONCLUSIONS: The increase in circulating IGF-I and a reduction in regulatory binding protein IGFBP-1 in ALS patients with a "stable" disease profile suggest a potential change in peripheral IGF bioavailability in these subjects. In MS, we report a change in a number of components of the peripheral IGF system, the observed increase in IGF-I in patients treated with IFN-beta being of most significance as a potential therapeutic biomarker.

Mannose 6-phosphate receptors in an ancient vertebrate, zebrafish.

The endosome/lysosome system plays key roles in embryonic development, but difficulties posed by inaccessible mammalian embryos have hampered detailed studies. The accessible, transparent embryos of Danio rerio, together with the genetic and experimental approaches possible with this organism, provide many advantages over rodents. In mammals, mannose 6-phosphate receptors (MPRs) target acid hydrolases to endosomes and lysosomes, but nothing is known of acid hydrolase targeting in zebrafish. Here, we describe the sequence of the zebrafish cation-dependent MPR (CD-MPR) and cation-independent MPR (CI-MPR), and compare them with their mammalian orthologs. We show that all residues critical for mannose 6-phosphate (M6P) recognition are present in the extracellular domains of the zebrafish receptors, and that trafficking signals in the cytoplasmic tails are also conserved. This suggests that the teleost receptors possess M6P binding sites with properties similar to those of mammalian MPRs, and that targeting of lysosomal enzymes by MPRs represents an ancient pathway in vertebrate cell biology. We also determined the expression patterns of the CD-MPR and CI-MPR during embryonic development in zebrafish. Both genes are expressed from the one-cell stage through to the hatching period. In early embryos, expression is ubiquitous, but in later stages, expression of both receptors is restricted to the anterior region of the embryo, covering the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. The expression patterns suggest time- and tissue-specific functions for the receptors, with particular evidence for roles in neural development. Our study establishes zebrafish as a novel, genetically tractable model for in vivo studies of MPR function and lysosome biogenesis.

Callipyge mutation affects gene expression in cis: a potential role for chromatin structure.

Muscular hypertrophy in callipyge sheep results from a single nucleotide substitution located in the genomic interval between the imprinted Delta, Drosophila, Homolog-like 1 (DLK1) and Maternally Expressed Gene 3 (MEG3). The mechanism linking the mutation to muscle hypertrophy is unclear but involves DLK1 overexpression. The mutation is contained within CLPG1 transcripts produced from this region. Herein we show that CLPG1 is expressed prenatally in the hypertrophy-responsive longissimus dorsi muscle by all four possible genotypes, but postnatal expression is restricted to sheep carrying the mutation. Surprisingly, the mutation results in nonimprinted monoallelic transcription of CLPG1 from only the mutated allele in adult sheep, whereas it is expressed biallelically during prenatal development. We further demonstrate that local CpG methylation is altered by the presence of the mutation in longissimus dorsi of postnatal sheep. For 10 CpG sites flanking the mutation, methylation is similar prenatally across genotypes, but doubles postnatally in normal sheep. This normal postnatal increase in methylation is significantly repressed in sheep carrying one copy of the mutation, and repressed even further in sheep with two mutant alleles. The attenuation in methylation status in the callipyge sheep correlates with the onset of the phenotype, continued CLPG1 transcription, and high-level expression of DLK1. In contrast, normal sheep exhibit hypermethylation of this locus after birth and CLPG1 silencing, which coincides with DLK1 transcriptional repression. These data are consistent with the notion that the callipyge mutation inhibits perinatal nucleation of regional chromatin condensation resulting in continued elevated transcription of prenatal DLK1 levels in adult callipyge sheep. We propose a model incorporating these results that can also account for the enigmatic normal phenotype of homozygous mutant sheep.

Abnormal postnatal maintenance of elevated DLK1 transcript levels in callipyge sheep.

The underlying mechanism of the callipyge muscular hypertrophy phenotype in sheep (Ovis aries) is not presently understood. This phenotype, characterized by increased glycolytic type II muscle proportion and cell size accompanied by decreased adiposity, is not visibly detectable until approximately three to eight weeks after birth. The muscular hypertrophy results from a single nucleotide change located at the telomeric end of ovine Chromosome 18, in the region between the imprinted MATERNALLY EXPRESSED GENE 3 (MEG3) and DELTA, DROSOPHILA, HOMOLOG-LIKE 1 (DLK1) genes. The callipyge phenotype is evident only when the mutation is paternally inherited by a heterozygous individual. We have examined the pre- and postnatal expression of MEG3 and DLK1 in sheep of all four possible genotypes in affected and unaffected muscles as well as in liver. Here we show that the callipyge phenotype correlates with abnormally high DLK1 expression during the postnatal period in the affected sheep and that this elevation is specific to the hypertrophy-responsive fast-twitch muscles. These results are the first to show anomalous gene expression that coincides with both the temporal and spatial distribution of the callipyge phenotype. They suggest that the effect of the callipyge mutation is to interfere with the normal postnatal downregulation of DLK1 expression.

Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signalling is required for early dorso-anterior development of the zebrafish embryo.

The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signalling pathway has been highly conserved in animal evolution and, in mammals and Xenopus, plays a key role in embryonic growth and development, with the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) being a crucial regulator of the signalling cascade. Here we report the first functional role for the IGF pathway in zebrafish. Expression of mRNA coding for a dominant negative IGF-1R resulted in embryos that were small in size compared to controls and had disrupted head and CNS development. At its most extreme, this phenotype was characterized by a complete loss of head and eye structures, an absence of notochord and the presence of abnormal somites. In contrast, up-regulation of IGF signalling following injection of IGF-1 mRNA, resulted in a greatly expanded development of anterior structures at the expense of trunk and tail. IGF-1R knockdown caused a significant decrease in the expression of Otx2, Rx3, FGF8, Pax6.2 and Ntl, while excess IGF signalling expanded Otx2 expression in presumptive forebrain tissue and widened the Ntl expression domain in the developing notochord. The observation that IGF-1R knockdown reduced expression of two key organizer genes (chordin and goosecoid) suggests that IGF signalling plays a role in regulating zebrafish organizer activity. This is supported by the expression of IGF-1, IGF-2 and IGF-1R in shield-stage zebrafish embryos and the demonstration that IGF signalling influences expression of BMP2b, a gene that plays an important role in zebrafish pattern formation. Our data is consistent with a common pathway for integration of IGF, FGF8 and anti-BMPs in early vertebrate development.

Phylogenetic footprint analysis of IGF2 in extant mammals.

Genomic imprinting results in monoallelic gene transcription that is directed by cis-acting regulatory elements epigenetically marked in a parent-of-origin-dependent manner. We performed phylogenetic sequence and epigenetic comparisons of IGF2 between the nonimprinted platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and imprinted opossum (Didelphis virginiana), mouse (Mus musculus), and human (Homo sapiens) to determine if their divergent imprint status would reflect differences in the conservation of genomic elements important in the regulation of imprinting. We report herein that IGF2 imprinting does not correlate evolutionarily with differential intragenic methylation, nor is it associated with motif 13, a reported IGF2-specific "imprint signature" located in the coding region. Instead, IGF2 imprinting is strongly associated with both the lack of short interspersed transposable elements (SINEs) and an intragenic conserved inverted repeat that contains candidate CTCF-binding sites, a role not previously ascribed to this particular sequence element. Our results are the first to demonstrate that comparative footprint analysis of species from evolutionarily distant mammalian clades, and exhibiting divergent imprint status is a powerful bioinformatics-based approach for identifying cis-acting elements potentially involved not only in the origins of genomic imprinting, but also in its maintenance in humans.

The child maltreatment log: a computer-based program for describing research samples.

The Child Maltreatment Log (CML) is a computer-based program designed to record information about children's maltreatment experiences and associated life events. Addressing concerns posed by scientific panels and grant review panels, the CML was designed to improve upon existing instruments to facilitate collaboration among researchers interested in maltreatment. The CML encourages researchers to collect information from multiple sources and informants concerning children's maltreatment experiences. Rather than classifying types of maltreatment a priori, the CML allows researchers to describe children's experiences using objective descriptors pertaining to potential acts of abuse, potential perpetrators, frequency, onset, consequential injuries, and treatment. The CML can be downloaded by interested agencies and groups without charge.

Tissue-specific inactivation of murine M6P/IGF2R.

The mannose 6-phosphate/insulin-like growth factor 2 receptor (M6P/IGF2R) encodes a multifunctional protein involved in lysosomal enzyme trafficking, fetal organogenesis, tumor suppression, and T cell- mediated immunity. M6P/IGF2R is an imprinted gene in mice with expression only from the maternal allele. Complete knockout of this gene causes neonatal lethality, thus preventing analysis of its multifunctional role postnatally. To help elucidate the biological functions of M6P/IGF2R in adulthood, we generated both complete and tissue-specific M6P/IGF2R knockout mice using the Cre/loxP system. We confirm that complete M6P/IGF2R knockout results in fetal overgrowth and neonatal lethality. In contrast, tissue-specific inactivation of this gene in either the liver or skeletal and cardiac muscle gives rise to viable animals with no obvious phenotype. The successful creation of viable tissue-specific M6P/IGF2R knockout mouse models will now allow for detailed analysis of receptor function in a number of cellular processes including brain development, carcinogenesis, lysosomal trafficking, and T cell-mediated immunity.

M6P/IGF2R tumor suppressor gene mutated in hepatocellular carcinomas in Japan.

Mannose 6-phosphate/insulin-like growth factor II receptor (M6P/IGF2R) tumor suppressor- gene mutation is an early event in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) formation in the United States, but its role in hepatocarcinogenesis in Japan is unclear. We therefore determined M6P/IGF2R mutation frequency in HCCs from patients who resided in the southern, central, and northern regions of Japan. Ten single nucleotide polymorphisms were used to identify HCCs and dysplastic liver nodules with M6P/IGF2R loss of heterozygosity. The retained allele in these tumors was also assessed for point mutations and deletions in the M6P/IGF2R ligand binding domains by direct sequencing of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified DNA products. Fifty-eight percent (54 of 93) of the patients were heterozygous at the M6P/IGF2R locus, and 67% (43 of 64) of the HCCs and 75% (3 of 4) of the dysplastic nodules had loss of heterozygosity. The remaining allele in 21% of the HCCs contained either M6P/IGF2R missense mutations or deletions, whereas such mutations were not found in the dysplastic lesions. In conclusion, M6P/IGF2R is mutated in HCCs from throughout Japan with a frequency similar to that in the United States. Loss of heterozygosity in dysplastic liver nodules provides additional evidence that M6P/IGF2R haploid insufficiency is an early event in human hepatocarcinogenesis.