Temporal trends of halogenated flame retardants in the atmosphere of the Canadian Great Lakes Basin (2005-2014).

Organic pollutants have been monitored in the atmosphere of the Great Lake Basin (GLB) since the 1990s in support of the Canada-US Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and to determine the effectiveness of source reduction measures and factors influencing air concentrations. Air samples were collected between 2005 and 2014 at three sites with different geographical characteristics (Burnt Island, Egbert and Point Petre) in the Canadian GLB using high-volume air samplers and the air samples were analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and several other non-PBDE halogenated flame retardants (HFRs). Spatial and temporal trends of total concentrations of HFRs were examined. BDE-47, BDE-99, and BDE-209 were the dominant PBDE congeners found at the three sites. For the non-PBDE HFRs, allyl 2,4,6-tribromophenyl ether (TBP-AE), hexabromobenzene (HBBz), pentabromotoluene (PBT), anti-dechlorane plus (anti-DDC-CO) and syn-dechlorane plus (syn-DDC-CO) were frequently detected. High atmospheric concentrations of PBDEs were found at the Egbert site with a larger population, while lower levels of PBDEs were detected at Point Petre, which is close to urban centers where control measures are in place. The strong temperature dependence of air concentrations indicates that volatilization from local sources influences atmospheric concentrations of BDE-28 and BDE-47 at Point Petre and Burnt Island, while long-range atmospheric transport (LRAT) was important for BDE-99. However, a weaker correlation was observed between air concentrations and ambient temperature for non-PBDE HFRs such as TBP-AE and HBBz. Atmospheric PBDE concentrations are decreasing slowly, with half-lives in the range of 2-16 years. Faster declining trends of PBDEs were observed at Point Petre rather than at Burnt Island. As Point Petre is closer to urban centers, faster declining trends may reflect the phase out of technical BDE mixtures in urban centers while LRAT influences the air concentrations at Burnt Island. The levels of syn-DDC-CO and anti-DDC-CO are decreasing at Point Petre and the levels of other non-PBDE HFRs such as TBP-AE, PBT and HBBz are increasing. Long-term declining trends of PBDEs suggest that regulatory efforts to reduce emissions to the GLB environment have been effective but that continuous measurements are required to gain a better understanding of the trends of emerging chemicals in the atmosphere of the GLB.

Atmospheric concentrations and loadings of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in the Canadian Great Lakes Basin (GLB): Spatial and temporal analysis (1992-2012).

Long-term air monitoring data for POPs are required to determine the effectiveness of source reduction measures and factors controlling air concentrations. Air samples were collected between 1992 and 2012 at three sites with different geographical characteristics (Burnt Island, Egbert and Point Petre) in the Canadian Great Lakes Basin (GLB) using high-volume samplers and analyzed for organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Spatial and temporal trends of gas-phase concentrations of OCPs, selected PCB congeners and Æ©PCBs (84 congeners) were assessed. Egbert had the highest concentrations of some OCPs due to historical [dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), dieldrin, γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH)] and current (endosulfan) applications of these pesticides in the surrounding agricultural cropland. This shows that agricultural areas are a source of OCPs to the GLB. High o,p'-/p,p'-DDT ratios were determined and an increasing trend was observed at Point Petre and Burnt Island up to 2004; indicating that the GLB is influenced by dicofol-type DDT sources, which have higher o,p'-/p,p'-DDT ratios than technical DDT. Atmospheric PCB concentrations at Egbert and Point Petre are higher than those measured at Burnt Island, likely due to urban influence and greater populations. Loadings calculations suggest that the atmosphere is a source of α-endosulfan and p,p'-DDT to the lakes and the opposite is true for p,p'-DDE. Long-term decreasing trends were observed for both OCPs and PCBs; consistent with control measures implemented in North America. Atmospheric PCB concentrations are decreasing relatively slowly, with halflives in the range of 9-39 years. Chlordane, α-endosulfan, ß-endosulfan, dieldrin, and DDT-related substances showed halflives in the range of 7-13 years. α-HCH and γ-HCH were decreasing rapidly in air, with halflives of 5 years. Long-term declining trends of PCBs and OCPs suggest that regulatory efforts to reduce emissions to the GLB environment have been effective, but emissions from primary and secondary sources might limit future declines.