Receipt of routine preventive care among infant daughters and sons of immigrant mothers in Ontario, Canada: a retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: To explore gender disparities in infant routine preventive care across maternal countries of birth (MCOB) and by mother tongue among infants of Indian-born mothers. SETTING: Retrospective population-based administrative cohort in Ontario, Canada (births between 2002 and 2014). PARTICIPANTS: 350 366 (inclusive) healthy term singletons belonging to families with a minimum of one opposite gender child. OUTCOME MEASURES: Fixed effects conditional logistic regression generated adjusted ORs (aORs) for a daughter being underimmunised and having an inadequate number of well-child visits compared with her brother, stratified by MCOB. Moderation by maternal mother tongue was assessed among children to Indian-born mothers. RESULTS: Underimmunisation and inadequate well-child visits were common among both boys and girls, ranging from 26.5% to 58.2% (underimmunisation) and 10.5% to 47.8% (inadequate well-child visits). depending on the maternal birthplace. Girls whose mothers were born in India had 1.19 times (95% CI 1.07 to 1.33) the adjusted odds of inadequate well-child visits versus their brothers. This association was only observed among the Punjabi mother tongue subgroup (aOR: 1.26, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.47). In the Hindi mother tongue subgroup, girls had lower odds of underimmunisation than their brothers (aOR: 0.73, 95% CI 0.54 to 0.98). CONCLUSIONS: Gender equity in routine preventive healthcare is mostly achieved among children of immigrants. However, daughters of Indian-born mothers whose mother tongue is Punjabi, appear to be at a disadvantage for well-child visits compared with their brothers. This suggests son preference may persist beyond the family planning stage among some Indian immigrants.

Variations in male-female infant ratios among births to Canadian- and Indian-born mothers, 1990-2011: a population-based register study.

BACKGROUND: We assessed variations in the male-female infant ratios among births to Canadian-born and Indian-born mothers according to year of birth, province and country of birth of each parent. METHODS: In this population-based register study, we analyzed birth certificates of 5 853 970 singleton live births to Canadian-born and 177 990 singleton live births to Indian-born mothers giving birth in Canada from 1990 to 2011. Male-female ratios were stratified by live birth order and plotted by year of birth. Logistic regression was used to assess whether ratios varied between Canadian provinces and according to the birthplace of each parent. The deficit in the number of girls was estimated using bootstrap methods. RESULTS: Among Canadian-born mothers, male-female ratios were about 1.05, with negligible fluctuations by birth order, year and province. Among Indian-born mothers, the overall male-female ratio at the third birth was 1.38 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.34-1.41) and was 1.66 (95% CI 1.56-1.76) at the fourth or higher-order births. There was little variability in the ratios between provinces. Couples involving at least 1 Indian-born parent had higher than expected male-female ratios at the second and higher-order births, particularly when the father was Indian-born. The deficit in the expected number of girls among Indian immigrants to Canada in the study period was estimated to be 4472 (95% CI 3211-5921). INTERPRETATION: Fewer than expected girls at the third and higher-order births have been born to Indian immigrants across Canada since 1990. This trend was also seen among couples of mixed nativity, including those involving a Canadian-born mother and an Indian-born father. Fathers should be considered when investigating sex ratios at birth.

Sex ratios at birth after induced abortion.

BACKGROUND: Skewed male:female ratios at birth have been observed among certain immigrant groups. Data on abortion practices that might help to explain these findings are lacking. METHODS: We examined 1 220 933 births to women with up to 3 consecutive singleton live births between 1993 and 2012 in Ontario. Records of live births, and induced and spontaneous abortions were linked to Canadian immigration records. We determined associations of male:female infant ratios with maternal birthplace, sex of the previous living sibling(s) and prior spontaneous or induced abortions. RESULTS: Male:female infant ratios did not appreciably depart from the normal range among Canadian-born women and most women born outside of Canada, irrespective of the sex of previous children or the characteristics of prior abortions. However, among infants of women who immigrated from India and had previously given birth to 2 girls, the overall male:female ratio was 1.96 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.75-2.21) for the third live birth. The male:female infant ratio after 2 girls was 1.77 (95% CI 1.26-2.47) times higher if the current birth was preceded by 1 induced abortion, 2.38 (95% CI 1.44-3.94) times higher if preceded by 2 or more induced abortions and 3.88 (95% CI 2.02-7.50) times higher if the induced abortion was performed at 15 weeks or more gestation relative to no preceding abortion. Spontaneous abortions were not associated with male-biased sex ratios in subsequent births. INTERPRETATION: High male:female ratios observed among infants born to women who immigrated from India are associated with induced abortions, especially in the second trimester of pregnancy.

Economic considerations and health in all policies initiatives: evidence from interviews with key informants in Sweden, Quebec and South Australia.

BACKGROUND: Health in All Policies (HiAP) is a form of intersectoral action that aims to include the promotion of health in government initiatives across sectors. To date, there has been little study of economic considerations within the implementation of HiAP. METHODS: As part of an ongoing program of research on the implementation of HiAP around the world, we examined how economic considerations influence the implementation of HiAP. By economic considerations we mean the cost and financial gain (or loss) of implementing a HiAP process or structure within government, or the cost and financial gain (or loss) of the policies that emerge from such a HiAP process or structure. We examined three jurisdictions: Sweden, Quebec and South Australia. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with 12 to 14 key informants in each jurisdiction. Two investigators separately coded transcripts to identify relevant statements. RESULTS: Initial readings of transcripts led to the development of a coding framework for statements related to economic considerations. First, economic evaluations of HiAP are viewed as important for prompting HiAP and many forms of economic evaluation were considered. However, economic evaluations were often absent, informal, or incomplete. Second, funding for HiAP initiatives is important, but is less important than a high-level commitment to intersectoral collaboration. Furthermore, having multiple sources of funding of HiAP can be beneficial, if it increases participation across government, but can also be disadvantageous, if it exposes underlying tensions. Third, HiAP can also highlight the challenge of achieving both economic and social objectives. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are useful for elaborating propositions for use in realist multiple explanatory case studies. First, we propose that economic considerations are currently used primarily as a method by health sectors to promote and legitimize HiAP to non-health sectors with the goal of securing resources for HiAP. Second, allocating resources and making funding decisions regarding HiAP are inherently political acts that reflect tensions within government sectors. This study contributes important insights into how intersectoral action works, how economic evaluations of HiAP might be structured, and how economic considerations can be used to both promote HiAP and to present barriers to implementation.

Exploring the occupations of homeless adults living with mental illnesses in Toronto.

BACKGROUND: The nature of occupational engagement for homeless people living with mental illnesses is not well understood, and there are few studies to date that examine the occupational lives of these individuals. PURPOSE: This research study seeks to understand how this group of individuals engages in occupations. The central question is "What is the nature of occupational engagement by homeless adults living with mental illnesses in Toronto?" METHOD: A constant comparative method of analysis was used in a secondary analysis of 60 interviews with homeless adults experiencing mental illness. FINDINGS: Four themes emerged that describe the nature of occupational engagement for this group: occupations as enjoyment, occupations as survival/risk, occupations as passing time, and occupations as self-management. Implications. This research informs occupational therapy interventions aimed at optimizing engagement, health, and well-being for homeless adults living with mental illnesses.

Marital status, duration of cohabitation, and psychosocial well-being among childbearing women: a canadian nationwide survey.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the joint associations of marital status and duration of cohabitation on self-reported intimate partner violence, substance use, and postpartum depression among childbearing women. METHODS: We analyzed data from the 2006-2007 Canadian Maternity Experiences Survey, a cross-sectional nationwide sample of 6421 childbearing women. Cohabiting women were married or nonmarried women living with a partner; noncohabiters were single, divorced, or separated women. We further categorized cohabiters by their duration of cohabitation (≤ 2, 3-5, or > 5 years). We used logistic regression to generate adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: About 92% of women were cohabiters. Compared with married women living with a husband more than 5 years, unmarried women cohabiting for 2 years or less were at higher odds of intimate partner violence (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 4.64; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.85, 7.56), substance use (AOR = 5.36; 95% CI = 3.06, 9.39), and postpartum depression (AOR = 1.87; 95% CI = 1.25, 2.80); these risk estimates declined with duration of cohabitation. CONCLUSIONS: Research on maternal and child health would benefit from distinguishing between married and unmarried cohabiting women, and their duration of cohabitation.

Risk factors for postpartum depression among abused and nonabused women.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to compare risk factors for postpartum depression among women exposed vs not exposed to intimate partner violence and to assess the timing of abuse in relation to postpartum depression. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective cohort study utilizing data from the Canadian Maternity Experiences Survey, a telephone survey at 5-10 months postpartum. Survey questions were adapted from the Canadian Violence Against Women Survey and the Edinburgh Post-Natal Depression Scale. RESULTS: Among abused women, younger (15-19 years), and older (35 years old and older), age was associated with postpartum depression, adjusted odds ratio (aOR, 2.29; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.17-4.51) and (aOR, 2.33; 95% CI, 1.02-5.34) as was unemployment (aOR, 1.41; 95% CI, 1.06-1.84), foreign birth (aOR, 2.04; 95% CI, 1.35-3.09], and low income (aOR, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.25-2.25) among nonabused women. Postpartum depression was significantly associated with abuse occurring only prior to pregnancy (aOR, 3.28; 95% CI, 1.86-5.81), starting postpartum (aOR, 4.76; 95% CI, 1.41-16.02), and resuming postpartum (aOR, 3.81; 95% CI, 1.22-11.88). CONCLUSION: Among pregnant women, subgroups defined by abuse exposure differ in their risk profile for postpartum depression.

Revisiting the immigrant paradox in reproductive health: the roles of duration of residence and ethnicity.

The immigrant paradox refers to the contrasting observations that immigrants usually experience similar or better health outcomes than the native-born population despite socioeconomic disadvantage and barriers to health care use. This paradox, however, has not been examined simultaneously in relation to varying degrees of exposure to the receiving society and across multiple outcomes and risk factors. To advance knowledge on these issues, we analysed data of the Maternity Experiences Survey, a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of 6421 Canadian women who delivered singleton infants in 2006-07. We compared the prevalence of adverse pregnancy outcomes and related risk factors according to women's ethnicity and time since migration to Canada. We calculated prevalences and prevalence ratios (PR) with 95% confidence intervals. Compared to Canadian-born women of European descent, recent immigrants were at lower risk of preterm delivery and morbidity during pregnancy despite having the highest prevalence of low income and low support during pregnancy among all groups, but the paradox was not observed among immigrants with a longer stay in Canada. In contrast, recent immigrants were at higher risk of postpartum depression. Immigrants of non-European origin also had higher prevalence of postpartum depression, irrespective of their length of residence in Canada, but immigrants from European-origin countries did not. Exposure to Canada was also positively associated with higher alcohol and tobacco consumption and body mass index. Canadian-born women of non-European descent were at higher risk of preterm birth and hospitalisation during pregnancy than their European-origin counterparts. Our findings suggest that the healthy migrant hypothesis and the immigrant paradox have limited generalisability. These hypotheses may be better conceptualised as outcome-specific and dependent on immigrants' ethnicity and length of stay in the receiving country.

Experiences of violence before and during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes: an analysis of the Canadian Maternity Experiences Survey.

BACKGROUND: Abuse and violence against women constitute a global public health problem and are particularly important among women of reproductive age. The literature is not conclusive regarding the impact of violence against pregnant women on adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as preterm birth, small for gestational age and postpartum depression. Most studies have been conducted on relatively small samples of high-risk women. Our objective was to investigate what dimensions of violence against pregnant women were associated with preterm birth, small for gestational age and postpartum depression in a nationally representative sample of Canadian women. METHODS: We analysed data of the Maternity Experiences Survey, a nationally representative survey of Canadian women giving birth in 2006. The comprehensive questionnaire included a 19-item section to collect information on different dimensions of abuse and violence, such as type, frequency, timing and perpetrator of violence. The survey design is a stratified simple random sample from the 2006 Canadian Census sampling frame. Participants were 6,421 biological mothers (78% response rate) 15 years and older who gave birth to a singleton live birth and lived with their infant at the time of the survey. Logistic regression was used to compute Odds Ratios. Survey weights were used to obtain point estimates and 95% confidence intervals were obtained with the jacknife method of variance estimation. Covariate control was informed by use of directed acyclic graphs. RESULTS: No statistically significant associations were found for preterm birth or small for gestational age, after adjustment. Most dimensions of violence were associated with postpartum depression, particularly the combination of threats and physical violence starting before and continuing during pregnancy (Adjusted Odds Ratio = 4.1, 95% confidence interval: 1.9, 8.9) and perpetrated by the partner (4.3: 2.1, 8.7). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide weak evidence of an association between experiences of abuse before and during pregnancy and preterm birth and small for gestational age but they indicate that several dimensions of abuse and violence are consistently associated with postpartum depression.

Effects of cumulative risk on behavioral and psychological well-being in first grade: moderation by neighborhood context.

This study builds upon existing research by examining whether risk indices for child psychological well-being behave in the same way in different types of neighborhoods. Specifically, we sought to determine if neighborhood characteristics acted to exacerbate or, alternatively, to buffer risk factors at the family and/or child level. Families with a child entering first grade in Fall 2002 were recruited from Baltimore City neighborhoods, defined as census block groups. This study included 405 children, and data came from an interview with the primary caregiver and an assessment of the first grader. The dependent variables were externalizing behavior and internalizing problems. A family risk index consisting of 13 measures, and a child risk index consisting of three measures were the main independent variables of interest. We examined the effects of these indices on child psychological well-being and behavior across two neighborhood characteristics: neighborhood potential for community involvement with children and neighborhood negative social climate. Results of multivariate analyses indicated that cumulative family risk was associated with an increase in both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Perceived negative social climate moderated the effect of family risks on behavior problems such that more risk was associated with a larger increment in both externalizing behavior problems and psychological problems for children living in high versus low risk neighborhoods. These findings further emphasize the importance of considering neighborhood context in the study of child psychological well-being.

"This is not a well place": neighborhood and stress in Pigtown.

In this study we explored experiences of stress in the lives of 10 mothers and grandmothers living in a low-income, predominantly White, urban neighborhood. Based on interviews, diaries, and photographs, we learned that these women encounter a confluence of stressors related to their everyday lives, their neighborhood, and community culture and institutions. The words and images these women gave us offer insight into how we might improve public health programs and policy, shape epidemiologic variables of interest, and better understand mechanisms related to neighborhoods, stress, and health. We developed a conceptual model representing stressors and sources of stress as overlapping ecological domains. Understanding that low-income, urban women are exposed to multiple, nonindependent types and sources of stress has implications for both research methods and practice. It is our intent that this research will stimulate broad, international dialogue on how living in a poor community may impact the health of women and their children and lead to a new public health that engages whole communities and targets multiple domains.

Mortality among residents of shelters, rooming houses, and hotels in Canada: 11 year follow-up study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine mortality in a representative nationwide sample of homeless and marginally housed people living in shelters, rooming houses, and hotels. DESIGN: Follow-up study. SETTING: Canada 1991-2001. PARTICIPANTS: 15 100 homeless and marginally housed people enumerated in 1991 census. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Age specific and age standardised mortality rates, remaining life expectancies at age 25, and probabilities of survival from age 25 to 75. Data were compared with data from the poorest and richest income fifths as well as with data for the entire cohort RESULTS: Of the homeless and marginally housed people, 3280 died. Mortality rates among these people were substantially higher than rates in the poorest income fifth, with the highest rate ratios seen at younger ages. Among those who were homeless or marginally housed, the probability of survival to age 75 was 32% (95% confidence interval 30% to 34%) in men and 60% (56% to 63%) in women. Remaining life expectancy at age 25 was 42 years (42 to 43) and 52 years (50 to 53), respectively. Compared with the entire cohort, mortality rate ratios for men and women, respectively, were 11.5 (8.8 to 15.0) and 9.2 (5.5 to 15.2) for drug related deaths, 6.4 (5.3 to 7.7) and 8.2 (5.0 to 13.4) for alcohol related deaths, 4.8 (3.9 to 5.9) and 3.8 (2.7 to 5.4) for mental disorders, and 2.3 (1.8 to 3.1) and 5.6 (3.2 to 9.6) for suicide. For both sexes, the largest differences in mortality rates were for smoking related diseases, ischaemic heart disease, and respiratory diseases. CONCLUSIONS: Living in shelters, rooming houses, and hotels is associated with much higher mortality than expected on the basis of low income alone. Reducing the excessively high rates of premature mortality in this population would require interventions to address deaths related to smoking, alcohol, and drugs, and mental disorders and suicide, among other causes.

The effect of residential neighborhood on child behavior problems in first grade.

Child behavior problems have been identified as being responsible for the greatest reduction in quality of life for children between ages 1 and 19. In this study, we examine whether neighborhood social processes are associated with differences in child behavior problems in an economically and racially diverse sample of 405 urban-dwelling first grade children and whether parenting behavior mediates and/or moderates the effects of neighborhoods. Furthermore, we examine whether neighborhood social processes play the same role with regards to child behavior problems at differing levels of neighborhood economic impoverishment. Results of multivariate multilevel regression analyses indicate that a high negative social climate is associated with greater internalizing problems. High potential for community involvement for children in the neighborhood was associated with fewer behavior problems, but only in economically impoverished neighborhoods. Differences in parenting behavior did not appear to mediate neighborhood effects on behavior problems, and parenting characterized by a high degree of positive involvement was associated with fewer behavior problems in all types of neighborhoods.

No neighborhood is an island: incorporating distal neighborhood effects into multilevel studies of child developmental competence.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether incorporating information regarding neighborhoods which were more distal to the child's neighborhood added any explanatory power to models of child cognitive competence. Participants included a sample of young African-American children living in an urban setting in the northeast United States. Spatial geographic methods were used to estimate the concentration of economic disadvantage, population instability, and crime in the neighborhoods surrounding the child's residence, and multilevel modeling methods were used to estimate the contribution of these factors to between-neighborhood variance in child cognitive scores. Results indicated that the conditions of distal neighborhoods were related to cognitive scores among the preschooler-age children in this sample.

Neighborhood mapping and evaluation: a methodology for participatory community health initiatives.

OBJECTIVES: This paper describes the use of neighborhood mapping as a key element in an ecological study of a community-based urban infant mortality prevention program. We propose the use of neighborhood mapping in evaluation research to more fully examine the local context of community health programs. Mapping can be used to study community change and to describe community assets and structural, epidemiological, and social features of neighborhoods that may influence program implementation and outcomes. METHODS: Data on physical features were collected by community residents during street-by-street neighborhood walkthroughs. Other data sources included program records, Census, birth certificate, and state and city data. Analytic methods included geo-coding, exploratory factor analysis to create spatial density indicators of neighborhood features at the Census block group level, and analysis of associations between neighborhood features and outcomes. RESULTS: Point and chloropleth maps provide a powerful illustration of neighborhood features (e.g., vacant buildings), client distribution and participation, health outcomes, and change over time. Factor analysis indicated two salient clusters of non-residential land use: (1) legitimate daily usage (liquor stores and other businesses) and (2) non-legitimate daily use (houses of worship and vacant buildings). A composite scale was created to indicate overall risk related to physical neighborhood features. CONCLUSIONS: Neighborhood mapping is a powerful tool that brings participants and residents into the research process. Moreover, it can improve understanding of the role of neighborhood ecology in program implementation and outcomes.

Ethnographically informed community evaluation: a framework and approach for evaluating community-based initiatives.

OBJECTIVES: This paper describes ethnographically informed community evaluation (EICE), a framework for evaluating complex community-based interventions, and illustrates its use in the evaluation of Baltimore City Healthy Start, a federally funded infant mortality prevention project. EICE, which is influenced by cultural anthropology and assets-based community assessment, supports continuous program improvement, resident involvement, and measurement of community-level change. This approach takes into account both individual and contextual levels of analysis. METHODS: The evaluation coupled a participatory approach with qualitative and survey research methods to study community context and how it might contribute to infant mortality and influence program implementation, and to assess community change resulting from the program. Data collection included focus groups, key informant interviews, surveys, neighborhood mapping, journaling, and a study of community problem-solving. RESULTS: The evaluation provided program-related feedback to staff, contributed to a collective understanding of the local context, validated and augmented outcome findings, and imparted skills and a sense of empowerment to the neighborhood. Results reveal a community burdened by crime and social problems, yet showing great diversity in physical and social conditions when examined at the census block group level. Nevertheless, these social and physical hazards in the community are more salient than any specific health issue such as infant mortality. CONCLUSIONS: EICE is a powerful evaluation approach able to respond to the complexities of community-based maternal and child health initiatives designed to institute changes across multiple domains. EICE may be used, in whole or in part, as a supplement to traditional designs.

Neighborhood matters: racial socialization of African American children.

Differences in racial socialization practices and their effects were examined in a sample of 241 African American 1st graders (average age 6.59 years) living in an urban area. Child outcomes included cognitive development, receptive language skills, and child problem behavior. The cultural environment of the home was associated with higher cognitive scores for boys living in high negative social climate and low social capital neighborhoods and for girls living in high social capital neighborhoods. The positive association of promotion of mistrust and child behavior problems was magnified in neighborhoods that had low levels of social capital. A high negative social climate in the neighborhood attenuated the positive association between preparation for bias/promotion of mistrust and externalizing problems.

Neighborhood poverty, social capital, and the cognitive development of African American preschoolers.

In this investigation, we examine the impact of the ecological context of the residential neighborhood on the cognitive development of children by considering social processes not only at the family-level but also at the neighborhood-level. In a socioeconomically diverse sample of 200 African American children living in 39 neighborhoods in Baltimore, we found that neighborhood poverty was associated with poorer problem-solving skills over and above the influence of family economic resources and level of positive parent involvement. Sampson has theorized that neighborhood poverty affects child well-being by altering levels of neighborhood social capital as well as family social capital. Although we found that indicators of neighborhood and family social capital were associated with cognitive skills, these factors did not explain the association between neighborhood poverty and problem-solving ability. Implications for future research in the area of neighborhoods and child development are discussed.

Suicide risk and mental health indicators: Do they differ by abuse and HIV status?

PURPOSE: This study examines the association between women's HIV serostatus, intimate partner violence (IPV) experience, and risk of suicide and other mental health indicators. Using data from Project WAVE (Women, AIDS, and the Violence Epidemic), we 1) describe the rates of suicidal thoughts and attempts, anxiety, and depression; 2) examine whether and to what extent these outcomes differ by women's HIV and IPV status. METHODS: A one-time interview was conducted with a sample 611 women living in an urban area, one-half of whom were HIV-positive. RESULTS: Having thought about suicide was reported by 31% of the sample and 16% reported having attempted suicide. Among HIV-positive women, thoughts of suicide occurred more frequently among those who were recently diagnosed. One-half of the sample reported problems with depression, and 26% reported problems with anxiety; of women reporting these problems, 56% received mental health treatment. Rates varied significantly by HIV and IPV status, with women who were both HIV-positive and abused consistently faring worse. Relative to HIV-negative non-abused women, HIV-positive abused women were 7.0 times as likely to report problems with depression, 4.9 times as likely to report problems with anxiety, 3.6 times as likely to have thought about suicide, and 12.5 times as likely to have ever attempted suicide. Our findings that abused HIV-negative women were also at significantly elevated risk for all of these outcomes lends support to the conclusion that it is the experience of abuse that is associated with the negative outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Health care and service providers interacting with women who may be HIV-positive and/or in abusive relationships should routinely assess for mental health status, especially suicide risk, which may need crisis intervention.

Experiences of racism among African American parents and the mental health of their preschool-aged children.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the relationship between parents' experiences of racism and children's well-being and the influence of the residential neighborhood characteristics on this relationship. METHODS: African American families were recruited from Baltimore neighborhoods. Parental measures included racism experiences and coping. Neighborhood measures included demographic characteristics, social cohesion, and social climate. Children's mental health was assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist. Analysis was performed with multilevel modeling. RESULTS: Parents who denied experiences of racism also reported higher rates of behavior problems among their preschool-aged children. For families living in neighborhoods characterized by fear of victimization, parents who actively coped with racism experiences by confronting the person involved or taking some sort of action in response to racism reported lower rates of anxiety and depression for their preschool-aged children. CONCLUSIONS: Experiences of and responses to racism among African American parents have important effects on the well-being of their young children.